Researching the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL)

By Lara Eid Jreissati

Lara Eid Jreissati is an international lawyer specializing in International Criminal Law, Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law. She holds a master’s degree in Euro-Mediterranean cultures and policies from Italy’s International Telematics University. She consulted with the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) in The Hague. She is an active member of the STL Follow-up Commission work at the Beirut Bar Association. She consults with NGO’s on asylum, refugee, and disadvantaged migrant’s matters. She is an active member of the Beirut Bar Association’s Human Rights Institute. She has also lectured and published on international criminal law and human rights.

Published March/April 2022

(Previously updated by Martin Wählisch in November/December 2015)

See the Archive Version!

1. Introduction

Now that the Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL) is set to cease operations soon due to lack of funds, this overview may cast the Tribunal in a different light. The article comprises four parts: part 1 gives a brief introduction into the historical background of events leading to the establishment of the STL, elaborates on the STL Statute, the particularities and organization of the Court; part 2 explains matters of jurisdiction (ratione temporis, ratione materiae, ratione personae), provides links to the STL rules and procedure, and the 2011 interlocutory decision; part 3 touches on the latest trial proceedings, such as the indictment Ayyash et al.,the trial in absentia, the motions on the legality of the STL (2012), the connected cases Hamadeh, Hawi and El-Murr and the request by Jamil El Sayed to access documents, the verdict, and the appeal phase; part 4 links to the STL annual reports and offers a list of links to relevant websites, access to legal terminology, and a comprehensive bibliography of academic publications about the STL. Each part provides direct links to the mentioned official documents and recommendations for further reading.

1.1. Background

On February 14, 2005, a bomb attack killed the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and 22 others. One month later, pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 1595, the United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) was established to “assist the Lebanese authorities in their investigation.”

UNIIIC commenced its investigation on June 16, 2005. The Security Council extended the mandate of UNIIIC in subsequent resolutions 1636 (2005), 1644 (2005), 1686 (2006), 1748 (2007), and 1815 (2008). UNIIIC produced a total of 11 reports and ceased its investigation on February 28, 2009. In the end of February 2009, UNIIIC ended its mandate and was superseded by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon on March 1, 2009.

Security Council resolutions:

UNIIIC reports:

For an analysis of the work of the UNIIIC, see:

1.2. Establishment and Statute of the STL

On December 13, 2005, the Prime Minister of Lebanon, Fouad Siniora, sent a letter to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan requesting on behalf the Lebanese Government “to establish a tribunal of an international character to convene in or outside Lebanon, to try all those who are found responsible for the terrorist crime perpetrated against Hariri.”

By Resolution 1644 (2005), the Security Council requested the UN Secretary General to help the Government of Lebanon to identify the nature and scope of the international assistance needed to try those that killed former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri before a tribunal of an international character. The Secretary General delivered his report in March 2006.

By Resolution 1664 (2006), the Security Council endorsed the report and requested the UN Secretary General to negotiate an agreement with the Government of Lebanon. In January and February 2007, the UN Secretary General and the Government of Lebanon concluded negotiations and signed an agreement on the establishment of a Special Tribunal for Lebanon. In March and April 2007, a formal session of the Lebanese Parliament to ratify the Statute of the Tribunal and the bilateral agreement with the United Nations was not convened.

In May 2007, the Lebanese Prime Minister wrote to the Security Council to take action, stressing that “further delays in setting up the Tribunal would be most detrimental to Lebanon’s stability, to the cause of justice, the credibility of the United Nations itself and to peace and security in the region.” On May 30, 2007, the Security Council passed Resolution 1757 (2007) deciding while acting under Chapter IV that the provisions of the “agreement” between the United Nations and the Lebanese Republic on the establishment of a Special Tribunal for Lebanon enter into force on June 10, 2007.

Letters, resolutions, and reports:

Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon:

  • Security Council Resolution 1757, May 30, 2007. (Annex, Agreement between the United Nations and the Lebanese Republic on the establishment of a Special Tribunal for Lebanon, pp. 4-11. Attachment, Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, pp. 12-22).

For a quick access of the STL Statute in Arabic, English and French:

For a critical analysis of the establishment of the STL, see the overview about the motions on the legality of the STL in part 3.3 below. For an introduction to the debate watch also:

STL Budget:

  • Lebanon contributed 49% of the Tribunal’s budget, while the rest has come from voluntary contributions. Since 2009, 28 countries and the European Union have contributed, either through voluntary contributions or in-kind support. The total cost of the STL was $67 million in 2020. As Lebanon sunk deeper into economic and political turmoil, it became unable to pay its share. The STL is now set to cease operations in 2024 if work is not completed and it does not run out of money. See STL press release.

1.3. Particularities of the STL

In comparison to other international tribunals, the STL has five distinct features:

  • The STL is the first international tribunal with a jurisdiction on terrorism;
  • Victims may participate in the trial proceedings (in the ICTY and ICTR victims were only allowed as witnesses);
  • STL proceedings might be held in a trial in absentia without the accused being present;
  • The STL has an independent Defence Office being of equal status as the Office of the Prosecutor; and
  • The STL has a pre-trial judge, who reviews indictments and prepares cases for trial.

For a critical analysis of the particularities of the STL, see:

1.4. STL Organs and Seat

The STL has four organs:

The Tribunal has 11 judges, among them four Lebanese judges and seven international judges. All judges are appointed by the Secretary General following nominations from the UN Member States, or other competent persons.

Relevant sections and articles of the STL Statute:

  • Section I: Jurisdiction and Applicable Law (Articles 1-6)
  • Section II: Organization of the Special Tribunal (Articles 7-14)
  • Section III: Rights of Defendants and Victims (Articles 15-17)
  • Section IV: Conduct of Proceedings (Articles 18-30)

The STL has its seat outside of Lebanon in Leidschendam (Netherlands) near The Hague, see:

On June 5, 2009, the Government of Lebanon and the Office of the Prosecutor (OP) of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) guaranteeing that the OTP is “free from interference in the conduct of its investigation in Lebanon.”

2. The Law of the STL

2.1. Jurisdiction

2.1.1. Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis

The STL Statute divides the offences under the jurisdiction of the STL into three categories:

  • The attack of 14 February 2005 resulting in the death or injury of Hariri and others;
  • Other attacks having occurred between October 1, 2004 and December 12, 2005; and
  • Attacks, which may have occurred at any later date.

As the Statute postulates, the Tribunal has solely “jurisdiction over persons responsible for the attack of 14 February 2005 resulting in the death of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and in the death or injury of other persons.”

However, if “the Tribunal finds that other attacks that occurred in Lebanon between 1 October 2004 and 12 December 2005, or any later date decided by the Parties and with the consent of the Security Council, are connected in accordance with the principles of criminal justice and are of a nature and gravity similar to the attack of 14 February 2005” it can “also have jurisdiction over persons responsible for such attacks.”

Given the limited mandate of the Tribunal vis-à-vis unfulfilled demands to investigate cases of disappeared during the Lebanese Civil War of 1975-1990, Amnesty International has raised concerns about the “selectiveness of justice.”

For a critical analysis of the STL jurisdiction see:

2.1.2. Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae

The applicable laws are provisions of the Lebanese Criminal Code “relating to the prosecution and punishment of acts of terrorism, crimes and offences against life and personal integrity, illicit associations and failure to report crimes and offences, including the rules regarding the material elements of a crime, criminal participation and conspiracy.” Moreover, the STL applies Articles 6 and 7 of the Lebanese law of 11 January 1958 on “Increasing the penalties for sedition, civil war and interfaith struggle.” Relevant article in the STL Statute: Article 2 STL Statute: Applicable Criminal Law.

Selected Articles of the Lebanese Criminal Code: Lebanese Criminal Code is available for download in English, French, and Arabic:

  • Arts. 37-69: Criminal Convictions and Penalties
  • Arts. 152-156: Special Pardon and Amnesty
  • Arts. 188-198: Mental Elements of Offences (e.g. intent, motive, political offences)
  • Arts. 210-211: Responsible Persons (the perpetrator of the offence)
  • Arts. 212-222: Criminal Participation (definition of perpetrator, instigator, accomplices & concealers)
  • Arts. 231-240: Absence of Responsibility & Diminished Responsibility (insanity, mental deficiency, drunkenness, and intoxication through drugs)
  • Arts. 249-261: Grounds of Excuse
  • Arts. 270-272: Offences against State Security
  • Arts. 314-316: Terrorism
  • Arts. 547-550: Intentional Homicide
  • Arts. 335-339: Unlawful Associations (criminal associations, secret societies)
  • Arts. 398-400: Offences against the Administration of Justice (offences perverting the course of justice, concealment of felonies and misdemeanors).

For a critical analysis of the STL jurisdiction on terrorism see part 2.3 below.

2.1.3. Jurisdiction Ratione Personae

The STL can only trial individuals and not organizations or groups. Individual criminal responsibility within the STL Statute also includes participation as accomplice, the organization or direction of others to commit the crime, or the contribution in any other way to the commission of the crime.

Superiors are also criminally responsible for any of the crimes committed by subordinates. The fact that the accused acted pursuant to an order of a superior does not relieve him or her of criminal responsibility. Relevant article in the STL Statute, see Article 3 STL Statute: Individual criminal responsibility.

2.2. STL Rules and Procedures

The Rules of Procedure and Evidence (RPE) of the STL lay down rules that govern the various stages of the proceedings before the Tribunal. Among others, the RPE comprise rules for:

  • General provisions;
  • Cooperation with the Tribunal;
  • The organization of the Tribunal;
  • Investigations and rights of suspects and accused;
  • Confirmation of charges and pre-trial proceedings;
  • Proceedings before the trial chamber;
  • Appellate proceedings;
  • Review proceedings; and
  • Pardon and commutation of sentence.

The RPE were initially adopted on March 20, 2009, and have since been revised three times. In November 2010, the STL refined its Rules of Procedure and Evidence aiming to enhance the efficiency, effectiveness and integrity of the Tribunal’s proceedings. Most recently, the RPE were amended on February 12, 2015.

Documents:

For a critical analysis of the STL’s rules of procedure and evidence, see:

2.3. Interlocutory Decision on the Definition of Terrorism (2011)

On February 16, 2011, the Appeals Chamber of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an interlocutory decision on fifteen legal questions submitted by the Pre-Trial Judge. The decision creates the legal framework of the applicable law, among others, on the definition of terrorism, conspiracy, homicide, perpetration, and on cumulative charging.

Documents:

Amicus Curiae Briefs:

For a critical analysis of the STL jurisdiction on terrorism, see:

3. Trial Proceedings

3.1. Indictment of Ayyash et al. (2011)

On June 28, 2011, the Pre-Trial Judge confirmed the indictment of four suspects: Salim Jamil Ayyash, Mustafa Amine Badreddine, Hussein Hassan Oneissi, Assad Hassan Sabra. Initially, the indictment and orders remained confidential, but were unsealed and made public in August 2011. In January 2014, the trial in the Ayyash et al. case started before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. On 11 February 2014, the Trial Chamber decided to join the case against another suspect, Hassan Habib Merhi, with the Ayyash et al. proceedings.

Documents:

Infographic: Infographic: STL Indictment unsealed, NOW Lebanon, Aug. 17, 2011.

3.2. Trial In Absentia Decisions (2012)

Lebanese authorities failed to locate and arrest those indicted. On 1 February 2012 the Trial Chamber determined that “Mr. Ayyash, Mr. Badreddine, Mr. Oneissi and Mr. Sabra could not be found and that the trial would proceed in absentia. On 8 May 2012.Three Legal Representatives of Victims were appointed. The first trial the Prosecutor v. Ayyash et al, began on 16 January 2014.

On 11 February 2014, the court ordered the Merhi case joined with Ayyash et al. and adjourned the trial. After the death of accused, Mustafa Badreddine, the case against him was dismissed without prejudice. See proceedings termination against Badreddine.

Background information by the STL:

For a critical analysis of trial in absentia proceedings see:

  • Maggie Gardner, Reconsidering Trials in Absentia at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: An Application of the Tribunal’s Early Jurisprudence, George Washington International Law Review 43 (2011) 91;
  • Wayne Jordash and Tim Parker, Incompatibility with International Human Rights Law: Trials in Absentia at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.2 (2010) 487;
  • Niccolò Pons, Some Remarks on in Absentia Proceedings before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon in Case of a State’s Failure or Refusal to Hand over the Accused, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.5 (2010) 1307;
  • Ralph Riachy, Trials in Absentia in the Lebanese Judicial System and at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Challenge or Evolution?, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.5 (2010) 1295;
  • Chris Jenks, Notice Otherwise Given: Will in Absentia Trials at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon Violate Human Rights?, Fordham International Law Journal 33 (2009) 57;
  • Paola Gaeta, Trials In Absentia before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: To Be (Present) or Not To Be (Present), Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1165.

3.3. Motions on the Legality of the STL (2012)

In May 2012, the defense counsels filed motions challenging the jurisdiction of the STL. On June 13-14, 2012, the STL Trial Chamber held a public hearing on the legality of its creation. In July 2012, the Trial Chamber confirmed the STL’s jurisdiction dismissing the motions of the defense counsels.

Documents:

For a brief summary of the arguments at the hearing, see:

For a critical analysis of the legality of the STL’s jurisdiction see:

  • Marie Ghantous, À la Lumière de la Résolution 1757 (2007): Créant le Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban (TSL), Journal du Droit International 137.1 (2010) 35;
  • James Cockayne, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: A Cripple from Birth?, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1061;
  • Bardo Fassbender, Reflections on the International Legality of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1091;
  • Konstantinos D. Magliveras, Analysis and Evaluation of the Constitutive Documents of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, International Enforcement Law Reporter 23.10 (October 2007).

3.4. Cases Hamadeh, Hawi and El-Murr (2011)

The Tribunal determined that three attacks relating to Lebanese politicians Marwan Hamadeh, George Hawi and Elias El-Murr were connected to the 14 February 2005 attack that killed Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The pre-trial judge ordered Lebanese authorities to provide relevant files to the STL OTP. The cases remain under investigation.

Documents:

3.5. Requests to Access Documents (2010-2015)

In August 2005, together with Raymond Fouad Azar and Mostafa Fehmi Hamdan, Jamil El Sayed Ali Salah El Dine El Hajj had been among the four high-level Lebanese intelligence and security officers, which had been arrested on suspicion of involvement in the assassination.

In April 2009, the STL directed the Lebanese authorities to release the four generals. In March 2010, El Sayed submitted an application to the President of the STL requesting evidentiary material related to the crimes of libelous denunciations and arbitrary detention. On April 19, 2011, the STL Pre-Trial Judge held a confidential and ex parte hearing relating to the request by Jamil El Sayed to obtain access to documents of the Prosecutor.

In May 2011, the Pre-Trial judge ordered the release of documents to El Sayed. In February 2012, the Prosecutor partially appealed the decision of the pre-trial judge. In April 2012, the Appeals Chamber unanimously quashed the Pre-Trial Judge’s order. In January 2015, El Hajj filed a similar request with the STL seeking the release of certain evidentiary material against him.

Documents:

Amicus Curiae Briefs:

3.6. Contempt Cases (2014-2015)

Although there was an order of confidentiality issued by the pre-trial judge several journalists were charged with violating that order and interfering with the administration of justice. Both were later convicted and fined. However eventually at least one of the convictions was overturned.

In April 2015, Lebanese journalist Karma Khayat and Al Jadeed TV went on trial, accused of “knowingly and willfully interfering with the administration of justice” over August 2012 broadcasts relating to alleged confidential witnesses in the Hariri case. The accused faced a maximum penalty of seven years in jail or a fine of €100,000 ($105,780), or both. This was the first time a company was indicted by an international court. On 18 September 2015, Khayat was convicted of failing to remove from information on supposedly confidential witnesses from Al Jadeed’s website and YouTube channel, while Al Jadeed was found not guilty. Both accused were found not guilty of broadcasting and/or publishing information on supposedly confidential witnesses. Khayat was sentenced to a €10,000 fine. The conviction was reversed on 8 March 2016.

In a separate case, Ibrahim Al Amin and Akhbar Beirut were both found guilty of knowingly and willfully interfering with the administration of justice by publishing information on alleged confidential witnesses in the Ayyash et al. case in July 2016.Al Amin was sentenced to a €20,000 fine and Akhbar Beirut to a €6,000 fine. They did not appeal the judgment

Documents:

3.7. Verdict (2020)

The Special Tribunal for Lebanon concluded that there was no evidence that the leadership of Hezbollah or Syria were involved in the assassination of Rafic Hariri. One of the four Hezbollah suspects, Salim Ayyash, was tried in absentia for six years and convicted of five charges, including conspiracy aimed at committing a terrorist act, committing a terrorist act by explosive device, and the intentional killing of former Prime Minister Rafic Hariri and 21 others using explosive. He is unlikely to serve any prison time as he cannot be found. Hezbollah has refused to cooperate.

Three other defendants were acquitted due to insufficient evidence. The Tribunal did not identify the suicide bomber despite the fact that his body parts were recovered from the scene. The court indicated that Hezbollah members were observing the Hariri Motorcade based on data from mobile phones used by the plotters.

3.8. Appeal Phase (2021)

On 12 January 2021, both the Prosecution Ayyash filed Notices of Appeal against the Trial Judgment and Legal Representatives of the Victims (LRV) appealed the Sentencing Judgement. LVR’s appeal was ruled inadmissible on February 24, 2021. The Prosecution’s appeal against the acquittals of Hassan Habib Merhi and Hussein Hassan Oneissi continues, and the victims are authorized to participate. See more about the appeal.

4. Further Information and Documents

4.1. STL Annual Reports

The President of the STL submits an annual report to the government of Lebanon and the UN Secretary-General summarizing the STL’s latest activities, progress, and expectations for future efforts.

4.2. Glossaries

4.3. Relevant Websites

Institutions

Trial Tracking

Special Sections in Lebanese Media Reporting on the STL

Other

4.4. Bibliography

2017

  • Hannes Baumann, Lebanon’s Neoliberal Reconstruction(2017)
  • Martin Wählisch, Legitimacy Defects and Legal Flaws of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon(2017)

2016

  • Sari Hanafi, Are John Knudsen, Robert Flahive, Trial of the Status Quo: The Politics of Mediated Justice in the Special Tribunal for Lebanon Journal Article ( 2016)

2015

  • Nadia Bernaz, Corporate Criminal Liability under International Law: The New TV S.A.L. and Akhbar Beirut S.A.L. Cases at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 13.2 (2015) 313-330.
  • Michael Bohlander, ‘Statute? What Statute?’: Norm Hierarchy and Judicial Law-making in International Criminal Law at the Example of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Statute Law Review 36.2 (2015) 186-190.

2014

  • Amal Alamuddin and Anna Bonini, The UN Investigation of the Hariri Assassination, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 50.
  • Pascal Chenivesse and Daryl A. Mundis, Ethics before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 251.
  • Paola Gaeta, Trial in Absentia before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 229.
  • Dov Jacobs, The Unique Rules of Procedure of the Tribunal, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 111.
  • John RWD Jones and Misa Zgonec-Rozej, Rights of Suspects and Accused, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 177.
  • Nidal Jurdi, The Crime of Terrorism in Lebanese and International Law, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 73.
  • Heidi Matthews, Reading the Political: Jurisdiction and Legality at the Lebanon Tribunal, in Critical Approaches to International Criminal Law, Ed. Christine Schwobel (New York: Routledge, 2014), 138.
  • Howard Morisson and Emma Pountney, The Participation of Victims in the Judicial Process, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 153.
  • David Tolbert, Introduction: A Very Special Tribunal, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 1.
  • Nicolas Michel, Establishment of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 10.
  • Goran Sluiter, Responding to Cooperation Problems at the STL, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 134.
  • Erik Stier, The Expense of Expansion: Judicial Innovation at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, International and Comparative Law Review 36.3 (2014) 115-129.
  • Bahije Tabbarah, The Legal Nature of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 32.
  • David Tolbert and Evelyn Anoya, The STL Registry, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 208.
  • Philippa Webb, Individual Criminal Responsibility, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 88.
  • Harmen van der Wilt, The Legacy of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Law and Practice, Eds. Amal Alamuddin, Nidal Nabil Jurdi and David Tolbert (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 268.

2013

  • José E. Alvarez, Tadic Revisited: The Ayyash Decisions of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 11.2 (2013) 291-302.
  • Kathleen Barrett, Special Tribunal for Lebanon, in Trials and Tribulations of International Prosecution, Eds. Henry F. Carey and Stacey M. Mitchell (New York: Lexington Books, 2013), 223.
  • Melia Amal Bouhabib, Power and Perception: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Berkeley Journal of Middle Eastern & Islamic Law 3 (2013) 173-205.
  • Michelle Burgis-Kasthala, Defining Justice During Transition?: International and Domestic Contestations over the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, The International Journal of Transitional Justice, 7.3 (2013) 497.
  • Are Knudsen, Special Tribunal for Lebanon (STL): Impartial or Imposed International Justice?, Nordic Journal of Human Rights 31.2 (2013) 176-200.
  • Mariya Nikolova and Manuel J. Ventura, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon Declines to Review UN Security Council Action: Retreating from Tadic’s Legacy in the Ayyash Jurisdiction and Legality Decisions, Journal of International Criminal Justice 11.3 (2013) 615-641.
  • Ben Saul, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon and Terrorism as an International Crime: Reflections on the Judicial Function, in The Ashgate Research Companion to International Criminal Law: Critical Perspectives, Eds. William A. Schabas, Yvonne McDermott and Niamh Hayes (Farnham et al.: Ashgate, 2013), 79.
  • Chiara Ragni, The Contribution of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon to the Notion of Terrorism: Judicial Creativity or Progressive Development of International Law?, in International Courts and the Development of International Law: Essays in Honour of Tullio Treves, Eds. Nerina Boschiero, Tullio Scovazzi, Cesare Pitea and Chiara Ragni (The Hague: Asser Press, 2013), 6711.
  • Martin Waehlisch, Appeals Chamber Decisions on the Legality of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon and Trials In Absentia (STL): Introductory Note, International Legal Materials 52.1 (2013): 163.

2012

  • Antonio Cassese, The Legitimacy of International Criminal Tribunals and the Current Prospects of International Criminal Justice, Leiden Journal of International Law 25.2 (2012) 491-501.
  • Salem Hikmat Nasser, International Law and Politics: International Criminal Courts and Judgments: The Case of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Gonzaga Journal of International Law 15.2 (2012) 146.
  • Di Gore Simmala, La Participation de la Victime a la Procédure Devant le Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban, Revue Québécoise de Droit International, 25.2 (2012), 143-174.
  • Martin Waehlisch, Contesting and defending the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Cambridge Journal of International and Comparative Law Blog (June 22, 2012).

2011

  • Kai Ambos, Judicial Creativity at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Is There a Crime of Terrorism under International Law?, Leiden Journal of International Law 24.3 (2011) 655.
  • Kai Ambos, Amicus Curiae Brief Submitted to the Appeals Chamber of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon on the Question of the Applicable Terrorism Offence with a Particular focus on Special Intent and/or a Special Motive as Additional Subjective Requirements, Criminal Law Forum 22.3 (2011), 389.
  • John Cerone, The Politics of International Justice: U.S. Policy and the Legitimacy of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 40.1 (2011) 44-63.
  • Heather Noel Doherty, Tipping the Scale: Is the Special Tribunal for Lebanon International Enough to Override State Official Immunity?, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 43 (2011) 831.
  • Maggie Gardner, Reconsidering Trials in Absentia at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: An Application of the Tribunal’s Early Jurisprudence, The George Washington International Law Review 43 (2011) 91.
  • Matthew Gillett and Matthias Schuster, Debate The Special Tribunal for Lebanon Defines Terrorism: Fast-track Justice, Journal of International Criminal Justice 9.5 (2011) 989.
  • Michael Humphrey, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Emergency Law, Trauma and Justice, Arab Studies Quarterly 33.1 (2011) 4-23.
  • Nidal Nabil Jurdi, Falling Between the Cracks: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon’s Jurisdictional Gaps as Obstacles to Achieving Justice and Public Legitimacy, U.C. Davis Journal of International Law & Policy 17 (2011) 253.
  • Frédéric Mégret, Une Justice Pénale Internationale pour Juger le Terrorisme: Réflexions à Propos du Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban, in L’Internationalisation du Jugement des Actes de Terrorisme International, Eds. Jean-Marc Sorel and Svetlana Zasova (Paris: Pedone, 2011), 85.
  • Joseph Powerdly, Introductory Observations on the STL Appeals Chamber Decision: Context and Critical Remarks, Criminal Law Forum 22.3 (2011) 347-363.
  • Prakash Puchooa, Defining Terrorism at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of Terrorism Research 2.3 (2011) 34-47.
  • Susana Sacouto and Katherine Cleary, Amicus Curiae Brief on the Practice of Cumulative Charging before International Criminal Bodies Submitted to the Appeals Chambers of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon Pursuant to Rule 131 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Criminal Law Forum 22.3 (2011), 499.
  • Ben Saul, Legislating from a Radical Hague: The United Nations Special Tribunal for Lebanon Invents an International Crime of Transnational Terrorism, Leiden Journal of International Law 24.3 (2011) 677.
  • Ben Saul, Amicus Curiae Brief on the Notion of Terrorist Acts Submitted to the Appeals Chamber of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon Pursuant to Rule 131 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Criminal Law Forum 22.3 (2011) 365.
  • Giorgia Tortora, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon and the Discussion of Residual Mechanisms, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting (ASIL) 104 (2010) 45.
  • Manuel J. Ventura, STL’s Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law A Defining Moment or a Moment of Defining?: Terrorism According to the STL′s Interlocutory Decision on the Applicable Law, Journal of International Criminal Justice 9.5 (2011) 1021.
  • Martin Waehlisch, STL: The Price for Justice, International Justice Tribune 140 (Nov. 22, 2011).

2010

  • Melia Amal Bouhabib, Power and Perception: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Berkeley Journal of Middle East and Islamic Law 3 (2010) 173.
  • Marie Ghantous, À la Lumière de la Résolution 1757 (2007): Créant le Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban (TSL), Journal du Droit International 137.1 (2010) 35-74.
  • Jérôme de Hemptinne, Challenges Raised by Victims’ Participation in the Proceedings of the STL, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.1 (2010) 165.
  • Sandra L. Hodgkinson, Are Ad Hoc Tribunals an Effective Tool for Prosecuting International Terrorism Cases? Emory International Law Review 24 (2010) 515.
  • Safira H.M. Ibrahim, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: The Presence of Justice, A clear Conscience in a State of Amnesia, Tilburg: Celsus Legal Publishers, 2010.
  • Wayne Jordash and Tim Parker, Incompatibility with International Human Rights Law: Trials in Absentia at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.2 (2010) 487.
  • Emiel Jurjens, Pushing the Limits of Law: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon in Context, Utrecht University, 2010.
  • Alison J. MacFarlane, An Examination of Superior Responsibility in the Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Leiden et al.: Nijhoff, 2010.
  • Valerie Oosterveld, The International Criminal Court and the Closure of the Time-Limited International and Hybrid Criminal Tribunals, Loyola University Chicago International Law Review 8 (2010) 13.
  • Niccolò Pons, Some Remarks on in Absentia Proceedings before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon in Case of a State’s Failure or Refusal to Hand over the Accused, Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.5 (2010) 1307.
  • Ralph Riachy, Trials in Absentia in the Lebanese Judicial System and at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Challenge or Evolution? Journal of International Criminal Justice 8.5 (2010) 1295.
  • Janice Yun, Special Tribunal for Lebanon: A Tribunal of an International Character Devoid of International Law, Santa Clara Journal of International Law 7.2 (2010) 181.

2009

  • Robert Bosco, The Assassination of Rafik Hariri: Foreign Policy Perspectives, International Political Science Review 30.4 (2009) 349-361.
  • Yves Daudet, L’Attentat Terroriste Contre Rafik Hariri et la Création du Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban, in Le Procès International, Liber Amicorum Jean-Pierre Cot (Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2009), 51.
  • Matthew Gillett and Matthias Schuster, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon Swiftly Adopts Its Rules of Procedure and Evidence, Journal of International Criminal Justice 7 (2009) 885.
  • Lukasz Korecki, Procedural Tools for Ensuring Cooperation of States with the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 7.5 (2009) 927.
  • Iolanda Jaquemet, Fighting Amnesia: Ways to Uncover the Truth about Lebanon’s Missing, International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009) 69.
  • Chris Jenks, Notice Otherwise Given: Will in Absentia Trials at the Special Tribunal for Lebanon Violate Human Rights?, Fordham International Law Journal 33 (2009) 57.
  • Guénaël Mettraux, The Internationalization of Domestic Jurisdictions by International Tribunals: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon Renders Its First Decisions, Journal of International Criminal Justice 7.5 (2009) 911.
  • Gábor F. Molnár, A New Ad-hoc Tribunal: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Revista Romana de Drept International 8 (2009) 135.
  • George Bkassini, The Road to independence five years with Rafic Hariri (2009).
  • Mario Odoni, The Establishment of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon and Domestic Jurisdiction, Hague Justice Journal 4 (2009) 173.
  • Lindsey Raub, Positioning Hybrid Tribunals in International Criminal Justice, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 41 (2009) 1013.
  • Antonios Tzanakopoulos, Special Tribunal for Lebanon: First Orders by the Pre-trial Judge, The American Society of International Law 13.11 (2009) 1-8.

2008

  • Jean D’Aspermont and Annemarieke Vermeer-Kunzli, Current Legal Developments: The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Introductory Note, Leiden Journal of International Law 21.2 (2008) 483.
  • Björn Elberling, The Next Step in History-writing through Criminal Law: Exactly How Tailor-made is the Special Tribunal for Lebanon?, Leiden Journal of International Law 21 (2008) 529.
  • Frédéric Mégret, A Special Tribunal for Lebanon: The UN Security Council and the Emancipation of International Criminal Justice, Leiden Journal of International Law 21 (2008) 485.
  • D. Sridhar Patnaik, Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Some Preliminary Reflections, Leiden Journal of International Law 48 (2008) 242.
  • Kelly L. Razzouk, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon, The Global Community 1 (2008) 219.
  • William A. Schabas, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Is a ‘Tribunal of an International Character’ Equivalent to an ‘International Criminal Court’?, Leiden Journal of International Law 21 (2008) 513.
  • Jan Erik Wetzel and Yvonne Mitri, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: A Court “Off the Shelf” for a Divided Country, The Law & Practice of International Courts and Tribunals 7.1 (2008) 81.

2007

  • Cécile Aptel, Some Innovations in the Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5 (2007) 1107.
  • Aida Azar, Le Tribunal Special pour le Liban: Une Experience Originale?, Revue Générale de Droit International Public, 111 (2007) 643.
  • James Cockayne, The Special Tribunal for Lebanon: A Cripple from Birth?, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1061.
  • Bardo Fassbender, Reflections on the International Legality of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1091.
  • Paola Gaeta, Trials In Absentia before the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: To Be (Present) or Not To Be (Present), Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1165.
  • Nidal Nabil Jurdi, The Subject-Matter Jurisdiction of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1125.
  • Stephen Kay, International Terrorism: A Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Syria, Lebanon, and the Assassination of former Premier Rafik Hariri, UCL Jurisprudence Review Supplement 13 (2007) 11-26.
  • Aurelia Lelarge, Le Tribunal Spécial pour le Liban, Annuaire Français de Droit International 53 (2007) 397.
  • Konstantinos D. Magliveras, Analysis and Evaluation of the Constitutive Documents of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, International Enforcement Law Reporter 23.10 (October 2007).
  • Marko Milanovic, An Odd Couple: Domestic Crimes and International Responsibility in the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1139.
  • Choucri Sader, A Lebanese Perspective on the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: Hopes and Disillusions, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1083.
  • James G. Stewart, The UN Commission of Inquiry on Lebanon: A Legal Appraisal, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1039.
  • Bert Swart, Cooperation Challenges for the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1153.
  • Marieke Wierda, Habib Nassar and Lynn Maalouf, Early Reflections on Local Perceptions, Legitimacy, and Legacy of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, Journal of International Criminal Justice 5.5 (2007) 1065.

2006

  • William A. Schabas, Le Tribunal Spécial Pour le Liban Fait-il Partie de la Catégorie de “Certaines Juridictions Pénales Internationales”?, Revue Québécoise de Droit International (2006) 119.
  • Nicholas Blanford, Killing Mr. Lebanon: The Assassination of Rafik Hariri and its Impact on the Middle East Hardcover (2006)
  • Marwan Iskandar, Rafiq Hariri and the Fate of Lebanon (2006)