Researching the International Weapons Law

By Gudrun Monika Zagel

Gudrun Monika Zagel is Assistant Professor at the Department of Public, International and European Law of the University of Salzburg. She received her legal education from the University of Salzburg Law School and from the University of Texas School of Law at Austin, where she was a Fulbright Scholar. Previous work experiences include Professor of International Law and Human Rights at the University of the Federal Army Munich and consultant at the Office of the Legal Advisor of the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Gudrun is the author of a treatise and numerous articles on international economic law and co-editor of Smit & Herzog on The Law of the European Union (Matthew Bender). The author would like to thank Ms. Ellie Persellin for her valuable support in updating this research guide.

Published November/December 2021

(Previously updated in January 2017)

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1. Introduction

Since the end of the 19th century, with the development of technically more and more sophisticated weapons that cause increasingly brutal injuries to combatants and civilians, states started to ban certain types of weapons entirely and to limit the quantity and to regulate the use of weapons. The 1868 Declaration of St. Petersburg is the first formal agreement banning the use of certain weapons in war. The two Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and in 1907 brought progress in this respect. After relatively unsuccessful attempts in the League of Nations, a true multilateral process of disarmament started after World War II in the framework of the UN but also on the regional level.

The international law of weapons existing today comprises a large variety of rules. Whereas weapons of mass destruction are governed by a rather comprehensive and restrictive regime, in the field of conventional arms, the rules are less widespread, and existing treaties usually only govern specific categories of weapons and ammunition. In addition, it is uncertain how emerging new weapons, e.g., autonomous weapons systems or cyber weapons, are covered by existing rules and new rules are being developed. The scope of regulating weapons differs from a complete ban to limitations on the production, stockpiling, use, or trade in arms. Likewise, the compliance and verification mechanisms differ considerably depending on the type of arms and ammunition. Finally, there are rules on the use of arms in wartime as a means and method of warfare and on the use of arms in peacetime for the purpose of law enforcement.

After an overview on general sources on international weapons law (2.) and institutions dealing with weapons, arms control, and disarmament (3.), this research guide will provide references on rules banning or limiting weapons of mass destruction (4.), rules governing conventional weapons (5.), new types of weapons (6.), and rules regulating the use of weapons (7.).

2. General Information

2.1. General Information on Arms and Arms Trade

2.2. Basic Bibliography

  • Burns, Richard Dean, The Evolution of Arms Control, Westport: Praeger Security International 2009.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart, Weapons Under International Human Rights Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Vestner, Tobias, A Guide to International Disarmament Law, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2019.
  • Chevrier, Marie Isabelle, Arms Control Policy: A Guide to the Issues, Santa Barbara: Praeger 2012.
  • Dekker, Guido den, The Law of Arms Control: International Supervision and Enforcement, The Hague/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff 2001.
  • Dinstein, Yoram/Willy Dahl, Arne, Oslo Manual on Select Topics of the Law of Armed Conflict: Rules and Commentary, Cham: Springer 2020.
  • Fennell, Simone/Tofan, Claudia/Global Law Association (ed.), Arms Control, Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers 2011 (Collection of Documents).
  • Graham, Thomas Jr./LaVera, Damien J., Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Area, Seattle: University of Washington Press 2003 (Collection of Documents with Introductory Remarks).
  • Hulme, Karen, Weapons, in: White, Nigel D./Henderson, Christian (ed.), Research Handbook on International Conflict and Security Law: Jus ad bellum, Jus in bello, and Jus post bellum, Cheltenham: Elgar 2013, 315-341.
  • Joyner, Daniel H. (ed.), Arms Control Law, Farnham: Ashgate 2012.
  • Kalshoven, Frits, Arms, Disarmament and International Law, 191 RdC (1985) 183-342.
  • Marauhn, Thilo, Dispute Resolution, Compliance Control and Enforcement of International Arms Control Law, in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.) Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2010, 243-272.
  • Meier, Oliver/Daase, Christopher, Arms Control in the 21st Century: Between Coercion and Cooperation, London: Routledge 2013.
  • Stephan, Paul B./Klimenko, Boris M., International Law and International Security: Military and Political Dimensions – A U.S.-Soviet Dialogue, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2019.
  • Tuzmukhamedov, Bakhtiyar, Disarmament, in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, last updated: May 2011.

2.3. Leading Journals and Periodicals

2.4. Research Guides on the Internet

2.5. Libraries

2.6. Treaty and Documents Databases

3. Relevant Institutions

3.1. The United Nations

Relevant Bodies

Further Information

3.2. Other

3.3. Research Institutions

3.4. NGOs

3.5. National Authorities Dealing with Weapons and Disarmament

4. Weapons of Mass Destruction

With respect to weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons), international treaty law provides the most comprehensive rules on their production, use, non-proliferation, and compliance.

4.1. General

Joyner, Daniel H., International law and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press 2009.

  • Koplow, David, Eve of Destruction: Implementing Arms Control Treaty Obligations to Dismantle Weaponry, in: 8 Harvard National Security Journal (2017), 158-238.
  • Lindstrom, Gustav, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, in: Herd, Graeme P. (ed.), Great Powers and Strategic Stability in the 21st Century: Competing Visions of World Order, Abingdon: Routledge 2011, 45-64.
  • Sossai, Mirko, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation, in: White, Nigel D./Henderson, Christian (eds.), Research Handbook on International Conflict and Security Law: Jus ad bellum, Jus in bello, and Jus post bellum, Cheltenham: Elgar 2013, 41-66.
  • Venturini, G., Control and Verification of Multilateral Treaties on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, in: 17 UC Davis Journal of International Law and Policy (2010), 345-383.

4.2. Nuclear Weapons

The regulation of nuclear weapons has been a cumbersome process. There are numerous multilateral treaties governing specific aspects of nuclear weapons, such as the proliferation of nuclear weapons, establishing nuclear-weapon free zones, and banning tests with nuclear weapons. Only in 2021, a treaty on a complete ban of nuclear weapons entered into force.

4.2.1. General Bibliography

Borrie, John/Caughley, Tim (eds.), Viewing Nuclear Weapons through a Humanitarian Lens, New York, Geneva: UNIDIR 2013.

  • Darnton, Geoffrey/Falk, Richard/Krieger, David, Nuclear Weapons and International Law (3rd ed.), Bournemouth: Durotriges Press 2020.
  • Huntley, Wade L./Kurosawa, Mitsuru/Mizumoto, Kazumi (eds.), Nuclear Disarmament in the Twenty-first Century, Hiroshima: Hiroshima Peace Institute 2011.
  • ILA Study Group on Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation & Contemporary International Law, Table of Treaties, Other International Instruments and Case Law, April 2014.
  • Joyner, Daniel H., Iran’s Nuclear Program and International Law: From Confrontation to Accord, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2016.
  • Joyner, Daniel H., Recent Developments in International Law Regarding Nuclear Weapons, in: 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (2011) 209-224.
  • Lodgaard, Sverre, Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation: Towards a Nuclear-Weapon-Free World?, Abington, New York: Routledge (2011).
  • Nikolas Vik Steen, Bård/Njølstad, Olav, Nuclear Disarmament: A Critical Assessment, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2019.
  • Nystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2015.
  • Singh, Nagendra, Nuclear Weapons and Contemporary International Law, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1989.

4.2.2. Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Black-Branch, Jonathan L., The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons: Legal Challenges for Military Doctrines and Deterrence Policies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2021.
  • Camilleri, Joseph A./Hamel-Green, Michael/Yoshida, Fumihiko, The 2017 Nuclear Ban Treaty: A New Path to Nuclear Disarmament, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2019.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart, The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2019.
  • Kmentt, Alexander, The Treaty Prohibiting Nuclear Weapons: How it was Achieved and Why it Matters, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2021.4.2.3. Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Asada, Masahiko, The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Universalization of the Additional Protocol, in: 16 Journal of Conflict & Security (2011), 3-34.
  • Black-Branch, Jonathan L./Fleck, Dieter, Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation and Disarmament: A Comprehensive Audit of Relevant Legal Issues and International, in: 1 Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law (2014) (eBook 2020), 1-21.
  • Burns, Richard Dean/Coyle, Philip E., The Challenges of Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield 2015.
  • Copen, Tom, The Law of Arms Control and the International Non-proliferation Regime, Leiden, Boston: Brill/Nijhoff 2016.
  • Joyner, Daniel H., Interpreting the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011.
  • Joyner, Daniel H./Roscini, Marco (ed.) Non-proliferation Law as a Special Regime, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 201.
  • ILA Study Group on Nuclear Weapons, Non-Proliferation & Contemporary International Law, Conference Report, Washington 201.
  • Kiernan, Paul M., ‘Disarmament’ under the NPT: Article VI in the 21st Century, in: 20 Journal of International Law and Practice (2011) 381-400.
  • Pietrobon, Alessandra, Nuclear Powers’ Disarmament Obligation under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Interactions Between Soft Law and Hard Law, in: 27 Leiden Journal of International Law (2014), 169-188.
  • Popp, Roland/Horovitz, Liviu/Wenger, Andreas, Negotiating the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: Origins of the Nuclear Order, Abingdon, New York: Routledge 2017.
  • Rockwood, Laura, The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the IAEA Safeguards Agreements, in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.), Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2010, 301-323.

4.2.3. Nuclear Tests

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Asada, Masahiko, CTBT: Legal Questions arising from its Non-entry-into-force, in: 7 Journal of Conflict & Security Law (2002), 85-122.
  • Johnson, Rebecca, Unfinished Business: The Negotiation of the CTBT and the End of Nuclear Testing, Geneva: UNIDIR 2009.

4.2.4. Reduction of Nuclear Arms

During the Cold War, but also after 1990 the US and the USSR have concluded a number of bilateral agreements on the reduction of short range and medium range missiles.

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Calvo-Goller, Notburga K./Calvo, Michel A., The SALT Agreements: Content-Application-Verification, Dordrecht: Nijhoff 1987.
  • Fitzpatrick, Mark, et al, Uncertain Future: The JCPOA and Iran’s Nuclear and Missile Programmes, London: Routledge 2019.
  • Gottemoeller, Rose, Negotiating the New START Treaty, Amherst: Cambria Press 2021.
  • Heintze, Hans-Joachim, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, last updated: March 2010.
  • Klingler, Joseph, Iran, Nuclear Weapons, and International Law: What Might the Final Agreement Add?, ASIL Insights Vol. 19, Issue 14, 19 June 2015.
  • Lanoszka, Alexander, The INF Treaty: Pulling Out in Time, Strategic Studies Quarterly, Vol 13, No. 2, 48-67
  • Patton, Tamara/Podvig, Pavel/Schell, Philip, A New START Model for Transparency in Nuclear Disarmament, New York, Geneva: UNIDIR 2013.
  • Rebane, Alisa L. (ed.), The New START Treaty Between the US and Russia, New York: Nova Science 2011.

4.2.5. Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • De Chazournes, Laurence Boisson, International Law, the International Court of Justice and Nuclear Weapons, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.
  • Green, James, Planetary Defense: Near-Earth Objects, Nuclear Weapons, and International Law, in: 42 Hastings International and Comparative Law Review (2019), 1-71.
  • Hayashi, Nobuo, Legality Under “jus ad bellum” of the Threat of Use of Nuclear Weapons, in: Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Bersagel, Annie Golden (ed.), Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 31-58.
  • International Review of the Red Cross, 1997, No. 316 – Nuclear Weapons: The Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of Nuclear Weapons and International Humanitarian Law.

4.2.6. Nuclear-Free Zones

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Hellestveit, Cecilie/Mekonnen, Daniel, Nuclear Weapon-free Zones: The Political Context, in: Nystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 347-373.
  • Mack, Andrew, Nuclear-free Zones in the 1990s, Canberra: The Australian National University. Research School of Pacific Studies. Department of International Relations 1993.
  • Roscini, Marco, International Law, Nuclear Weapon-free Zones and the Proposed Zone Free of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East, in: Nystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 321-346.
  • Steer, Cassandra/Hersch, Matthew, War and Peace in Outer Space, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2021.
  • UN Secreatary-General, Reducing Space Threats through Norms Rules, and Principles of Responsible Behaviour, Advance Unabriged Edition A/76/XX
  • United Nations: UN Platform for Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones

4.2.7. Nuclear Terrorism

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Bunn, Matthew, Nuclear Terrorism: A Strategy for Prevention, in: Brown, Michael E. (ed.), Going Nuclear: Nuclear Proliferation and International Security in the 21st Century, Cambridge: MIT Press 2010.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart, Armed Non-State Actors and “Nuclear Terrorism” in Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Bersagel, Annie Golden, Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 418-432.
  • Fidler, David, Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Terrorism in International Law, in: Research Handbook on International Law and Terrorism (2nd ed.), Cheltenham: Elgar 2020, 80-96.
  • Herbach, Jonathan, International Arms Control Law and the Prevention of Nuclear Terrorism, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing 2021.
  • Iqbal, Imrana, Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and Terrorism: Law, Politics and Theory, University of Texas at Dallas 2017.

4.2.8. Organizations Monitoring Compliance with Nuclear Treaties

Bibliography

  • Black-Branch, Jonathan/Fleck, Dieter (eds.), Nuclear Non-Proliferation in International Law: Volume II – Verification and Compliance, The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press 2016.

4.3. Biological and Chemical Weapons

International law provides for a comprehensive regime on biological and chemical weapons that involves a complete ban and includes extensive compliance and verification mechanisms.

Legal Sources

General Bibliography

  • Kelle, Alexander, Prohibiting Chemical and Biological Weapons: Multilateral Regimes and Their Evolution, Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers 2014.
  • Tabassi, Lisa W. (ed.), OPCW: The Legal Texts (2nd ed.), The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press 2009.
  • Geneva Protocol 1925.
  • Baxter, Richard R./Buergenthal, Thomas., Legal Aspects of the Geneva Protocol of 1925, in: 64 American Journal of International Law (1970), 853-879.

Biological Weapons

  • Gerstein, Daniel M., National Security and Arms Control in the Age of Biotechnology: The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield 2013.
  • Lederberg, Joshua, Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.
  • Wright, Susan, Biological Warfare and Disarmament: New Problems/New Perspectives, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield 2002.

Chemical Weapons

  • Abe, Tatsuya, Effectiveness of the Institutional Approach to an Alleged Violation of International Law: The Case of Syrian Chemical Weapons, in 57 The Japanese Yearbook of International Law (2015), 333-370.
  • Bothe, Michael/Ronzitti, Natalino/Rosas, Alan, The New Chemical Weapons Convention: Implementation and Prospects, Leiden: Brill 1998.
  • Christensen, Stian Nordengen, Regulation of White Phosphorus Weapons in International Law, Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher 2016.
  • Crowley, Michael/Dando, Malcolm/Shang, Lijun, Preventing Chemical Weapons: Arms Control and Disarmament as the Sciences Converge, The Royal Society of Chemistry 2018.
  • Krutzsch, Walter/Myjer, Eric/Trapp, Ralf, The Chemical Weapons Convention: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014.
  • Morel, Benoit, Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention, Boulder: Westview Press 1993.
  • Myjer, Eric P. J., Issues of Arms Control Law and the Chemical Weapons Convention, The Hague: Kluwer 2001.
  • Thakur, Ramesh/Haru, Ere (eds.), The Chemical Weapons Convention: Implementation, Challenges and Opportunities, Tokyo: United Nations University Press 2006.
  • Tabassi, Lisa, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Chemical Weapons Convention), in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.) Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 273-300.

Institutions Monitoring Compliance

Useful Links

5. Conventional Weapons and Ammunition

There are several treaties addressing conventional weapons and banning or limiting their number, use, or proliferation. Some categories of weapons, such as small arms, and ammunition are, however, hardly regulated or regulation is still under discussion.

5.1. 1980 UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons

The Convention provides a framework for negotiating the prohibition or restriction of specific conventional weapons that are considered to be excessively injurious or having indiscriminate effects. So far, 5 protocols have been concluded. A protocol on autonomous legal weapons is under discussion. (See Chapter 6.1.)

Legal Sources

Implementation

Useful Links

5.2. Land Mines

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Bryden, Alan, International Law, Politics and Inhumane Weapons, London: Routledge 2012.
  • Lawand, Kathleen, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Ottawa Convention), in Ulfstein, Geir (ed.), Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2010, 324-350:
  • Maresca, Louis/Maslen, Stuart (eds.), The Banning of Anti-Personnel Landmines: The Legal Contribution of the International Committee of the Red Cross 1955-1999, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 200
  • Maslen, Stuart, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production, and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, Commentaries on Arms Control Treaties, Vol. 1, Second Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press 200
  • Rutherford, Kenneth R., Disarming States: the International Movement to Ban Landmines, Santa Barbara: Praeger 2011.

Useful Links

5.3. Cluster Munitions

Legal Sources

  • Convention on Cluster Munitions, concluded at Dublin on 30 May 2008 by the Diplomatic Conference on Cluster Munitions, opened for signature at Oslo on 3 December 2008, entered into force on 1 August 2010, 2688 UNTS 35.

Bibliography

  • Borrie, John, Unacceptable Harm: A History of How the Treaty to Ban Cluster Munitions was Won, New York/Geneva: UNIDIR 2009.
  • Breitegger, Alexander, Cluster Munitions and International Law: Disarmament with a Human Face?, London: Routledge 2012.
  • Docherty, Bonnie Lynn, Meeting the Challenge: Protecting Civilians through the Convention on Cluster Munitions, New York: Human Rights Watch 2010.
  • Hayashi, Mika, The Convention on Cluster Munitions and the Clearance of Cluster Munition Remnants: Whose Responsibility, and How to Ensure Effective Implementation?, in: 3 Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies (2012), 322-343.
  • Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Steward (eds.), The Convention on Cluster Munitions: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2010.
  • Raccuia, Daniel Joseph, The Convention on Cluster Munitions: An Incomplete Solution to the Cluster Munitions Problem, in: 44 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (2011), 465-497.

Useful Links

5.4. Small Arms and Light Weapons (SAWL)

United Nations

OSCE

Regional: Africa

Regional: Americas

Bibliography

  • Batchelor, Peter/Kenkel, Kai Michael (eds.), Controlling Small Arms: Consolidation, Innovation and Relevance in Research and Policy, London: Routledge 2014.
  • Dahinden, Erwin/Dahlitz, Julie/Fischer, Nadia (eds.), Small Arms and Light Weapons: Legal Aspects of National and International Regulations, New York: United Nations 2002.
  • Green, Oweb/Marsh, Nicolas, Small Arms, Crime and Conflict, Global Governance and the Threat of Armed Violence, London, New York: Routledge 2012.Hoffberger-Pippan, Elisabeth, Less-Lethal Weapons under International Law: A Three-Dimensional Perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2021.
  • Mubiala, Mutoy, The Kinshasa Convention for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Central Africa, in: 23 African Yearbook of International Law (2018), 489-496.
  • Parker, Sarah/Green, Katherine, A Decade of Implementing the United Nations Programme of Action on Small Arms and Light Weapons: Analysis of National Reports, Geneva: UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) 2012.
  • Rogers, Damian, Postinternationalism and Small Arms Control: Theory, Politics, Security, Burlington: Ashgate 2009.

Useful Links

5.5. Trade in Conventional Arms

Another possibility to reduce the use of conventional weapons is to limit their availability. This is done through a number of regimes limiting and regulating the trade in arms and dual-use goods.

Basic Information

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Brandes, Marlitt, “All’s Well That Ends Well” or “Much Ado About Nothing”?: A Commentary on the Arms Trade Treaty, in: 5 Goettingen Journal of International Law (2013), 399-429.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Clapham, Andrew/Giacca, Gilles/Parker, Sarah, The Arms Trade Treaty: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2016.
  • Cirlig, Carmen-Cristina, EU Arms Exports: Member States’ Compliance with the Common Rules, Library Briefing, Library of the European Parliament, 20.1.2013
  • Da Silva, Clare/Wood Brian (eds.), Weapons in International Law: The Arms Trade Treaty, Brussels: Larcier 2015.
  • Efrat, Asif, Toward Internationally Regulated Goods: Controlling the Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons, in: 64 International Organization (2010), 97-131.
  • Feinstein, Andres, The Shadow World: Inside the Global Arms Trade, London: Penguin Books 2011.
  • Frey, Barbara, Obligations to protect the Right to Life: Constructing a Rule of Transfer Regarding Small Arms and Light Weapons, in Gibney, Mark/Skogly, Sigrun, Universal Human Rights and Extraterritorial Obligations, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2010, 30-54.
  • Lustgarten, Laurence, Law and the Arms Trade: Weapons, Blood and Rules, Oxford/London/New York/New Delhi/Sydney: Hart Publishing 2021.
  • The Wassenaar Arrangement Secretariat (ed.), The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual Use Goods and Technologies, Public Documents, Vienna: Wassenaar Secretariat (2019.
  • Worster, William Thomas, The Arms Trade Treaty Regime in International Institutional Law, in 36 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law (2015) 995-1076.

Useful Links

5.6. Arms Embargoes

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Asada, Masahiko, Economic Sanctions in International Law and Practice, Oxon, New York: Routledge 2020.
  • Brzoska, Michael/Lopez Bingley, George A. (eds.), Putting Teeth in the Tiger: Improving the Effectiveness of Arms Embargoes, Bradford: Emerald Group Pub. 2009.
  • Fruchart, Damien/et al., United Nations Arms Embargoes, Their Impact on Arms Flows and Target Behaviours, Stockholm/Uppsala: SIPRI, Uppsala University 2007.
  • Happold, Matthew, Eden, Paul (ed.), Economic Sanctions and International Law, Oxford and Portland: Hart Publishing 2016.
  • van den Herik, Larissa (ed.), Research Handbook on UN Sanctions and International Law, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar 2017.

5.7. Reduction and Limitation of Conventional Arms

Legal Sources

Monitoring Compliance

Bibliography

  • The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, in: Graham, Thomas Jr./LaVera, Damien J., Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Area, Seattle: University of Washington Press 2003, 592-821.

6. New Types of Weapons

  • Boothby, William (ed.), New Technologies and the Law in War and Peace, Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press 2019.
  • Ford, Christopher, Williams, Winston S., Complex Battlespaces: The Law of Armed Conflict and the Dynamics of Modern Warfare, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2019.

6.1. Autonomous Weapon Systems

So far, there is no specific treaty governing the prohibition, limitation of use or trade in autonomous weapon systems. There is, however, discussion on a protocol to the CCW Convention (See Chapter 5.1.) Also, the existing rules of treaty law and customary international law on the use of weapons apply. (See Chapter 7)

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Amoroso, Daniele, Autonomous Weapons Systems and International Law, Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Nomos 2020
  • Anderson, Kenneth/Reisner, Daniel/Waxman, Matthew C., Adapting the Law of Armed Conflict to Autonomous Weapon Systems, in: 90 International Law Studies (2014), 386-411.
  • Asaro, Peter, On Banning Autonomous Weapon Systems: Human Rights, Automation, and the Dehumanizing of Lethal Decision-Making, in 94 International Review of the Red Cross (2012), 687-709.
  • Bradan, Thomas, Autonomous Weapon Systems: The Anatomy of Autonomy and the Legality of Lethality, in: 37 Houston Journal of International Law (2015), 235-274.
  • Crootof, Rebecca, The Varied Law of Autonomous Weapon Systems, in: Williams, Andrew/Scharre, Paul (eds.), NATO Allied Command Transformation, Autonomous Systems: Issues for Defence Policy Makers, Norfolk: HQ SACT 2015, 98-126.
  • Crootof, Rebecca, War Torts: Accountability for Autonomous Weapons, in: 164 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (2016), 1347-1402.
  • Galliott, Jai/MacIntosh, Duncan/Ohlin, Jens David (eds.), Lethal Autonomous Weapons: Re-Examining the Law and Ethics of Robotic Warfare, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2021.
  • Heintschel von Heinegg, Wolff/Frau, Robert/Singer, Tassilo (eds.), Dehumanization of Warfare: Legal Implications of New Weapon Technologies, Cham: Springer 2018.
  • ICRC, Expert Meeting, Autonomous Weapons Systems: Technical, Military, Legal and Humanitarian Aspects, Geneva, Switzerland, 26 to 28 March 2014, 102.
  • Kraska, James, Command Accountability for AI Weapon Systems in the Law of Armed Conflict, in: 97 International Law Studies (2021), 407-447.
  • Liu, Hin-Yan, Categorization and Legality of Autonomous and Remote Weapons Systems, in: 94 International Review of the Red Cross (2012), 627-652.
  • McFarland, Tim: Autonomous Weapon Systems and the Law of Armed Conflict: Compatibility with International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2020.
  • Melzer, Nils, Human Rights Implications of the Usage of Drones and Unmanned Robots in Warfare. Study for the European Parliament, Brussels: European Union 2013.
  • Mull, Nicholas, The Roboticization of Warfare with Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS): Mandate of Humanity or Threat to It?, in: 40 Houston Journal of International Law (2018), 461-530.
  • Saxon, Dan (ed.), International Humanitarian Law and the Changing Technology of War, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013.
  • Winter, Elliot, The Compatibility of Autonomous Weapons with the Principle of Distinction, in: the Law of Armed Conflict 69 ICLQ 2020.

Useful Links

6.2. Cyber Weapons and Cyberwarfare

So far, there is no specific legal instrument on cyber weapons, consequently the rules on the use of weapons (See Chapter 7) apply.

Bibliography

  • Harrison Dinniss, Heather, Cyber Warfare and the Laws of War, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2012.
  • Heintschel von Heinegg, Wolff/Frau, Robert/Singer, Tassilo (eds.), Dehumanization of Warfare: Legal Implications of New Weapon Technologies, Cham: Springer 2018.
  • Franklin, Alexi, An International Cyber Warfare Treaty: Historical Analogies and Future Prospects, in: 7 Journal of Law and Cyber Warfare (2018), 149-163.
  • Osula, Anna-Maria and Roigas, Henry (eds.), International Cyber Norms, Tallinn: NATO 2016
  • Roscini, Marco, Cyber Operations and the Use of Force in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014.
  • Schmitt, Michael N., Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2013.
  • Schmitt, Michael N., Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2017.
  • Solis, Gary D., The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflict (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2016, 673-709 (Cyberwarfare).
  • Tsagourias, Nicholas/Buchan, Russell (ed.), Research Handbook on International Law and Cyberspace: Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing 2015.

Useful links

7. Rules Regulating the Use of Weapons

The use of weapons that are not prohibited by one of the regimes mentioned in Chapters 4 to 6 of this guide is governed by the rules of international law. In times of armed conflict, the rules of international humanitarian law apply, in times of peace, the use of weapons must comply with the requirements of international human rights law. Areas beyond national jurisdiction are governed by specific legal rules.

7.1. During Armed Conflict

During armed conflict, Hague and Geneva Law apply to the use of all weapons that are not banned or regulated by specific treaties (see Chapters 4 to 6). These rules are of special importance for new categories of weapons not yet covered by specific treaties (e.g., autonomous weapon systems, cyber weapons. For both categories see also Chapter 6).

Legal Sources

Bibliography

  • Anderson, Kenneth/Reisner, Daniel/Waxman, Matthew C., Adapting the Law of Armed Conflict to Autonomous Weapon Systems, in: 90 International Law Studies (2014), 386-411.
  • Bersagel, Annie Golden, Use of Nuclear Weapons as an International Crime and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, in: Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Bersagel, Annie Golden, Nuclear Weapons Under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 221-244.Boothby, William, Weapons and the Law of Armed Conflict, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press 2016.
  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart, Use of Nuclear Weapons as Genocide, a Crime against Humanity or a War Crime, in: Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Bersagel, Annie Golden, Nuclear Weapons Under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 193 -220.
  • Doswald-Beck, Louise (ed.), San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995.
  • Haines, Steven., Weapons, Means and Methods of Warfare, in Wilmshurst, Elizabeth/Breau, Susan. (eds.), Perspectives on the ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007, 258–281.Henckaerts, Jean-Marie/Doswald-Beck, Louise (eds.), Customary International Humanitarian Law, Vols 1–2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2005.
  • Nasu, Hitoshi/McLaughlin, Robert (eds.), New Technologies and the Law of Armed Conflict, The Hague: TMC Asser 2014.
  • Oeter, Stefan, Methods of Combat, in: Fleck, Dieter (ed.), The Handbook of International Humanitarian Law, 4th ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press 2021, 170-249.
  • Saxon, Dan (ed.), International Humanitarian Law and the Changing Technology of War, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013.
  • Schmitt, Michael N., Autonomous Weapon Systems and International Humanitarian Law: A Reply to the Critics, Harvard National Security Journal Features 2013.
  • Solis, Gary D., The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflict (2nd ed.), CUP 2016.

7.2. During Peace Time

During peace time, arms may be used according to the national legal framework. However, states hold obligations under international law to respect, ensure, and protect basic human rights (in particular the right to life) when weapons are used. 75 per cent of all small arms are held by civilians, private security companies, armed groups or gangs, whereas only 25 per cent are held by law enforcement personnel. The use of weapons by law enforcement personnel is directly attributable to the state and thus states are obliged to ensure that the use of weapons by officials comply with international human rights law. But also, regarding the use of weapons by civilians, states have obligations under human rights law to protect other persons under their jurisdiction from death and non-lethal violence caused by weapons in situations of homicide, suicide, and extrajudicial killings.

Legal Sources

  • Prevention of Human Rights Violations Committed with Small Arms and Light Weapons, UN Human Rights Commission, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Res. 2006/22 of 24 August 2006, Annex.
  • UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials 1990, adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Cuba, 27 August to 7 September 1990.
  • Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, ECOSOC Res. 1989/65 of 24 May 1989.
  • UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, UN General Assembly Res. 34/169 of 17 December 1979.

Bibliography

  • Casey-Maslen, Stuart, Weapons Under International Human Rights Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014.
  • Hessbruegge, Jan Arno, Human Rights and Personal Self-Defense in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2017.
  • Melzer, Nils, Targeted Killing in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2008, Part B: Law Enforcement, 83-240.
  • UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Final Report Submitted by Barbara Frey, Special Rapporteur: Prevention of Human Rights Violations Committed with Small Arms and Light Weapons, 27 July 2006, A/HRC/Sub.1.

Additional Useful Links

7.3. Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction

The rules on weapons in the areas beyond national jurisdiction, including outer space or the high seas, are limited and still subject to discussion. Additional information on nuclear weapons is available in Chapter 4.2.7.

Bibliography

Useful Links