An Introduction to the Czech Legal System and Legal Resources Online

By Olga Pouperová

Olga Pouperová is an associate professor and researcher at the Palacký University, Department of Administrative Law and Financial Science, Olomouc, Czech Republic. She holds an M.A. (Law, Palacký University, Olomouc), Dr. Jur. (Masaryk University, Brno), Ph.D. (Charles University, Prague), and completed her Associate Professorship at Masaryk University, Brno.

Published September/October 2024

(Previously updated by Michal Bobek in September 2009; and by Olga Pouperova in May 2013, February 2014, and July/August 2018)

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction

The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is a relatively small country (with a surface area of seventy-eight thousand square kilometers), neighbouring Germany in the West, Poland in the North, Slovakia in the East, and Austria in the South.

The Czech Republic is one of the two successor states established in 1993 upon the peaceful and negotiated dissolution of Czechoslovakia (the other successor being the Slovak Republic). The Czechoslovak Republic was in turn created following the breakdown of Austria-Hungary in 1918.

Since 1st May 2004, the Czech Republic is a member of the European Union. From January 2009 until June 2009 and from July 2022 until December 2022, the Czech Republic assumed the Presidency of the Council of the EU. Since 1999, the Czech Republic has been a member of NATO.

The capital of the Czech Republic is Prague (Praha) (Art. 13 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic, Act No. 131/2000 Coll. on the Capital City of Prague). The legislature, the head of state, and most of the executives are located in the capital. Supporting the idea of separation of powers both Supreme Courts (the Supreme Court as well as the Supreme Administrative Court) and the Constitutional Court are located in Brno. Brno is also the seat of related offices (e.g., Supreme State Prosecutor’s Office) and other institutions (e.g. the Public Defender of Rights – Ombudsperson).

The national currency is the Czech Crown (česká koruna). By joining the European Union, the Czech Republic committed itself to adopting the single European currency (Euro). However, no precise date has yet been set; the adoption of the Euro shall take place after the so-called Maastricht criteria have been met. The Czech Republic is a unitary state. The only official language is Czech. Czech belongs to the Slavic language family. The population of the Czech Republic is about 10.5 million people (2021 est.).

The Czech legal system is a “continental” legal system, more specifically, due to common historical roots, it can be said that it belongs to the “Germanic” legal culture. The characteristics of the legal system are the following:

  • Principle areas of law and procedure are codified (Civil and Criminal Codes, Codes of Criminal, Civil and Administrative Procedure, etc.);
  • The system of legal sources is hierarchical, forming a pyramidal structure of legal force within the legal system;
  • Only written law (statutes adopted by the Parliament and regulations adopted by the government and administrative authorities) is recognized as a formal source of law.

The Constitution of the Czech Republic (hereinafter CCR) (in English), adopted by the Czech National Council on 16th December 1992 defines the Czech Republic as a sovereign, unitary, and democratic state governed by the rule of law, founded on respect for rights and freedoms of a man and citizen (Art. 1 (1) CCR).

An important part of the so-called constitutional order is the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (Art. 3 and Art. 112 (1) CCR). (in English). Albeit being in a separate constitutional law, it has the same legal force as the Constitution itself.

The political system is recognized as a parliamentary democracy, although the President of the Republic, who is the head of the state, is directly elected (Art. 54 (2) CCR). The functions of the head of state are mostly representative; the genuine executive power is vested in the government, which is in turn politically responsible to the Parliament (or more precisely to its first chamber, i.e. the Chamber of Deputies).

The state power is divided into the classical three powers (the conception of the triad of branches of state power), namely:

  • Legislature (Chapter 2 of the CCR) = the Parliament of the Czech Republic, consisting of the first chamber (Chamber of Deputies), and the second chamber (the Senate);
  • Executive (Chapter 3 of the CCR) = the head of state (the president of the Republic, Art. 54-66 of the CCR), the government (as the highest body of the executive power, Art. 67 – 79 of the CCR), administrative agencies (Art. 79 of the CCR), and Public Prosecutor (Art. 80 of the CCR);
  • Judiciary (Chapter 4 of the CCR) = the courts of general jurisdiction (civil and criminal), administrative courts, and the Constitutional Court.

There are other central bodies, which enjoy a high degree of independence and cannot be therefore associated with any of the three classical powers: the Czech National Bank and the Supreme Audit Office. There are also territorial self-governing units called municipalities and regions.

2.1. The Legislative Power

The legislative power is vested in the Parliament (Art. 15 (1) CCR). The Parliament consists of two chambers: The Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna) and the Senate (Senát).

The Chamber of Deputies has 200 members who are elected every four years. The renewal of the Chamber is always complete. The Chamber holds standing sessions. It elects its Chairperson and the Vice-chairperson and establishes committees and investigation commissions. The internal functioning of the Chamber is regulated by the Standing Rules of the Chamber of Deputies (Act no. 90/1995 Coll.).

Members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by secret ballot based on universal, equal, and direct right to vote, according to the principle of proportional representation.

The second chamber, the Senate, is a permanent body. It is composed of eighty-one senators, who are elected to a six-year term of office. Every second year, elections for one-third of the senators are held. There is thus a partial renewal of the Senate every two years.

Senators are also elected by secret ballot based on the universal, equal, and direct right to vote, according to the principle of the majoritarian electoral system. The election has normally two rounds: in the first round, a person is elected who receives a total majority of all votes given (i.e. more than 50% of votes). If no one can unite the total majority in the first round, a second round with the two candidates who received the most votes is held.

The Senate has a stabilizing role in the constitutional system. First, because of its permanent session, if the Chamber of Deputies is dissolved the Senate is empowered to adopt legislative measures on matters which cannot be delayed and would otherwise require the enactment of a statute (Art. 33 CCR). Second, because of its continuity, it tends to be a more moderate body than the Chamber of Deputies. The internal functioning of the Senate is regulated by the Standing Rules of the Senate (Act No. 107/1999 Coll.).

Senate legislative measures were adopted in 2013 for the first time in connection with the adoption of the new Civil Code 2012 entering into force in 2014 (“recodification of the civil law”), when other legal amendments needed to be adopted while the Chamber of Deputies was resolved. A Senate legislative measure has only conditional and temporary validity because it has to be additionally approved by the Chamber of Deputies (the so-called “ratihabitio”) at its first meeting after its establishment. If the measure is not approved, it is invalid ex nunc, i.e. on the day of the publication of the resolution of the Chamber of Deputies on the non-approval of the legal measure in the Collection of Laws. In the meantime, or if the measure is approved, it has the same legal force as a statute adopted in the legislative process according to Article 41 of the CCR.

2.2. The Executive

The executive power is shared between the President of the Republic and the government.

2.2.1. The President of the Republic

The President of the Republic (prezident republiky) is the head of the state. He/she is elected directly by citizens. The term of office is five years, with one re-election possible.

The powers of the president are mostly of a representative and ceremonial nature. There are several powers the president is entitled to realize by acting alone (i.e. without the consent of the prime minister or the responsible minister). These are contained in Art. 62 CCR.

Powers of the President of the Republic that are enumerated in Art. 63 CCR and those established by law do, however, require the countersignature of the Prime Minister or a member of the government designated by the Prime Minister. In the case of the exercise of these powers, which are more numerous than those of the president acting alone, the government is politically responsible for the decisions of the President.

Since 1993 when the former Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the Czech Republic has had four Presidents. Until the constitutional amendment of 2012, the President had been elected at a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.

The first President of the independent Czech Republic was Václav Havel (1993 – 1998, 1998 – 2003). The second President was Václav Klaus (2003 – 2008, 2008 – 2013). The third President of the Czech Republic (the first one elected directly) was Miloš Zeman (2013 – 2018, 2018 – 2023). The current President is Petr Pavel (elected in 2023).

2.2.2. The Government

The government (vláda) is the highest body of executive power. It consists of the Prime Minister, deputy prime ministers, and ministers.

The government is politically responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. Following a general election, the President of the Republic designates the Prime Minister. Upon the proposal of the designated Prime Minister, the President of the Republic appoints other members of the government and entrusts them with the management of the respective portfolios. Within 30 days of the appointment, the government as a collegiate body shall go to the Chamber of Deputies and ask it for a vote of confidence (for the detailed procedure and its variations see Art. 68 CCR).

It is a constitutional convention that the government shall be formed by the party which won the general elections. Alternatively, the chairperson of the second largest party is to be asked to form the government. The government is, however, supposed to be composed of politicians who were able to secure support for their government in the lower chamber of the Parliament.

The internal instability of governmental coalitions over the last twenty years has resulted in a modification of this constitutional rule, which now appears to allow for the possibility of a “civil servant government” or the so-called “caretaker government” (úřednická vláda). Such government is not composed of politicians, but of civil servants. It is created after a collapse of the existing government and before new general elections. The first such government was created in 1998 for six months and was chaired by Josef Tošovský, the then-governor of the Czech National Bank. The second civil servant government was formed in April 2009 and was headed by Jan Fisher, the former chairman of the Czech Statistical Bureau. The third civil servant interim government was created in July 2013 and led by Jiří Rusnok. It is the first government that lost a confidence vote. However, by the Constitution, the government that lost the confidence vote exercises all governmental functions and powers until the creation of a new government following general elections.

The government decides as a collegiate body by an absolute majority of all its members. Members of the government are generally at the same time heads of respective ministries. There are not many members of the government without responsibility for a particular ministry (so-called “ministr bez portfeje”).

2.2.3. The Ministries

The ministries are central administrative agencies subordinated directly to the government. The ministers are appointed by the President of the Republic upon the proposal of the Prime Minister. The President of the Republic will also recall a minister if the Prime Minister so proposes.

The number and portfolios of individual ministries are established by a statute (law no. 2/1969 Coll., on the Establishment of Ministries and Other Central Bodies of State Administration, as numerously amended). The current number of ministries is fourteen. These are:

2.2.4. Other Central Administrative Agencies Under Governmental Control

There are a considerable number of other central agencies, established by or listed in law no. 2/1969 Coll. (§ 2), that perform vital administrative tasks, more specific than those carried out by ministries. These administrative agencies are not managed by a member of the government. The adjective “central” means there is no higher (superior) administrative agency. Central administrative agencies are either subordinated to a ministry, and then the head of the agency is appointed by the government, or they are supposed to be independent of the government (“independent administrative agencies” similar to the Independent Regulatory Authorities). Central Administrative agencies enumerated in § 2 of the law no. 2/1969 Coll. include:

Administrative agencies independent of the government are central administrative agencies, established by a special statute (and listed in Act no. 2/1969 Coll., § 2), that are, to some extent depending on the special law, independent of the government. The bodies are entrusted with realizing administrative tasks sometimes running against the interests of the government of the day, usually strategic tasks (either because they concern fundamental rights, such as collecting, editing, and disseminating information, managing personal data, or processing statistical data, or they concern strategic economic sectors, such as energetics, transport, etc.) Their independence from the government is guaranteed mainly by a special way of appointing (and recalling). Usually, one body of state power nominates a candidate, and another body has the power to appoint the nominated candidate (so-called shared designating power where usually the body that nominates and the body that appoints represent different branches of the public power, e.g., members of the Council for Radio and Television Broadcasting are appointed by the Prime Minister based on the proposal made by the Chamber of Deputies, the Head of the Office for Personal Data Protection is appointed by the President of the Republic upon proposal of the Senate). The head of the agency is typically appointed for a fixed period. Also, reasons for removal are laid down by law.

Some of the independent administrative agencies (e.g., the Council for Radio and Television Broadcasting, the Energy Regulatory Office, and The Office for Oversight of Economic Management of Political Parties and Political Movements) are arranged as collegiate bodies, which also support independence. The independent administrative agencies to some extent enjoy financial independence too (they have a separate chapter of the state budget).

However, decisions by these independent administrative agencies can be reviewed by administrative courts, thus it cannot be said that the independent agencies are not responsible when carrying out their functions. Moreover, according to law no. 82/1998 Coll. (Law on Liability for damage incurred in the course of the exercising of public powers through a decision or unlawful official practice), the state holds liability for the unlawful decisions by independent administrative agencies as well as for the unlawful decisions by any other state authority.

2.3. Self-Government

There are two types of self-government in the Czech Republic: territorial and professional. In both cases, the legislator has delegated certain powers to independent entities. The Constitution guarantees territorial self-government (cf. chapter 7 of the CCR), whereas professional self-government is enacted solely by ordinary statutes. Some authors recognize also a third type of self-government, namely the educational self-government. Similar to self-governing territorial units and professional chambers, primary and secondary schools and universities are based on something like membership foundation and enjoy a certain degree of self-governance, but unlike territorial units and professional chambers, they are connected to the state administration to a greater extent.

2.3.1. Territorial Self-Government

The state may intervene in the activities of territorial self-governing units only if such intervention is required for the protection of law and only in a manner defined by law (Art. 101 (4) CCR).

Territorial self-government (územní samospráva) is realised on two levels:

  • Municipalities (obce), which are basic territorial self-governing units (základní územní samosprávné celky);
  • Regions (kraje), which are so-called higher territorial self-governing units (vyšší územní samosprávné celky).

There are 14 regions created by constitutional law no. 347/1997 Coll., on the Creation of Higher Territorial Self-governing Units. The competence and functioning of the regions are set by law no. 129/2000 Coll., Act on Regions.

Every municipality is a component of a region. The competence and functioning of municipalities are laid down by law no. 128/2000 Coll., Act on Municipalities.

Territorial self-governing units enjoy self-governing competence in the fields specified by the above-named laws. This competence also includes the power to adopt legislation (generally binding ordinances, obecně závazné vyhlášky) in those fields (Art. 104 (3) CCR).

Authorities of municipalities and regions may also be entrusted to exercise state administration when so provided by law (Art. 105 CCR). Then the authorities of self-governing units act as a kind of deconcentrated body of the government and exercise delegated state administration (not self-administration),

2.3.2. Professional Self-Government

The statutory basis for professional self-governance (profesní samospráva) can be found in several statutes setting up professional self-governing entities, e.g.:

The chambers typically exercise regulatory and disciplinary powers vis-à-vis its members, with membership being the precondition for the exercise of the respective regulated profession. Most of the decisions of the bodies of those chambers can be reviewed by administrative justice.

2.4. The Judiciary

The judiciary in the Czech Republic is defined by the Constitution so that the courts perform their duties as independent authorities (Art. 82 CCR).

The system of ordinary courts is made up of District, Regional, and High Courts and the Supreme Court (Art. 91 (1) CCR). The system of the general (civil and criminal) judiciary is supplemented by administrative and constitutional judiciary.

The basic regulation of the judicial power in the Czech Republic is provided by law no. 6/2002 Coll., Courts, Judges, Lay-judges, and the State Administration of Courts Act (the Judges Act 2002), available in Czech.

The judicial system in the Czech Republic is recognized as a professional career judiciary. There is no trial by jury. There is, however, the laic participation in the administration of justice in the form of laypersons sitting as judges in chambers, hearing cases at first instance. Laypersons are elected by municipal assemblies (§ 64 and f. Judges Act 2002). Two lay judges sit with a professional judge, hearing non-specialized cases at first instance. Appellate and Supreme Court chambers are only composed of professional judges.

The judges are appointed by the President of the Republic. They must be at least 30 years of age at the time of the appointment and must have completed an M.A. in law and three years of specialized training within the courts (Art. 60 (1) Judges Act 2002). Judges are appointed for life and can only be removed following disciplinary proceedings conducted by a special judicial disciplinary panel (cf. law no. 7/2002 Coll., on Disciplinary Proceedings Concerning Judges and Prosecutors).

There is a limited self-administration of the courts, mostly at the supreme level. The state administration of the courts is exercised by the Ministry of Justice and involves such crucial elements as the courts’ budgeting or the appointment of presidents and vice-presidents of the courts (cf. part III of the Judges Act 2002).

2.4.1. Courts of General Jurisdiction

Civil and criminal courts share the same judicial structure. Together, they form the courts of general jurisdiction (obecné soudnictví). They are competent in all types of disputes except those expressly reserved for the administrative courts or the Constitutional Court.

The structure, functions, and powers of the courts of general jurisdiction are regulated by the Judges Act 2002.

The structure of the ordinary courts is as follows:

  • Supreme Court of the Czech Republic (Nejvyšší soud ČR) located in Brno;
  • 2 High Courts (vrchní soudy) (one located in Prague with jurisdiction over Bohemia and the other seated in Olomouc with jurisdiction over Moravia);
  • 8 Regional courts (krajské soudy) (the regional court in the capital is called Metropolitan Court in Prague, Městský soud v Praze (Art. 11 Judges Act 2002));
  • 86 District courts (okresní soudy) (the district court in the district Brno is called City Court, Městský soud v Brně, Art. 12 Judges Act 2002).

As far as access to the decisions of the courts of general jurisdiction is concerned, there is an official selection of the Court’s case law, published in its Collection of the decisions of the Supreme Court (until 2021 published in printed version, from 2022 accessible only electronically).

Selected decisions of the High and Regional courts can be found on the website of the High Court (under decisions) (Sbirka soudnich rozhodnuti a stanovisek) and are also published in non-official legal periodicals dedicated to publishing case-law.

2.4.1.1. Civil Justice

Apart from the Judges Act 2002, the most important piece of legal regulation in civil matters is law no. 99/1963 Coll., the Code of Civil Procedure [CCivP], in Czech. A great revision of the Code of Civil Procedure entered into force on 1st January 2014. The Code of Civil Procedure now comprises solely rules of proceedings in disputes, whereas indisputable proceedings are regulated by a separate law on special judicial proceedings (law no. 292/2013 Coll.).

District courts have subject-matter jurisdiction at first instance unless the law stipulates otherwise (Art. 9 CCivP). In enumerated cases (Art. 9 CCivP), regional courts rather than district courts have the jurisdiction at first instance for reasons relating to greater specialization and consistent decision-making. Regional courts as courts of first instance hear and rule on cases, which are complicated and specialized and/or occur infrequently. The list of cases when regional courts act as courts of first instance is quite long and complex (§ Art. 9 (2) CCivP). It includes:

  • disputes concerning foreign states or persons enjoying diplomatic privileges and immunities,
  • disputes over the protection of rights infringed by unfair competitive behavior,
  • disputes arising from copyright and intellectual property law,
  • disputes arising from transactions on the commodity market,
  • disputes concerning financial security, cheques, bills of exchange, or investment instruments.

Regional courts decide on appeals (odvolání) against the decisions of district courts rendered on the first instance. In cases where the court of first instance is the regional court, the appellate court is one of the two High Courts.

The Supreme Court has the jurisdiction to decide on extraordinary appeals (dovolání) against final decisions of regional or high courts, acting as appellate courts. Unless the law stipulates otherwise, the extraordinary appeal is admissible against every final decision (a judgment or a resolution) of an appellate court if the challenged decision is based on answering an issue of substantive or procedural law which the appellate court has decided differently from the constant case-law of the Supreme Court, which has not been decided by the Supreme Court yet, which has not been answered uniformly by various panels of the Supreme Court, or which is proposed to be answered differently (cf. Art. 237 CCivP).

2.4.1.2. Criminal Justice

Rules of criminal procedure are contained in law no. 141/1961 Coll., the Code of Criminal Justice (CCrimP), in Czech. A special procedural regime has been introduced for criminal liability of persons under 15 years of age (law no. 218/2003 Coll., Juvenile Criminal Justice Act).

The courts of first instance in criminal matters are generally district courts. If, however, the criminal offense is punishable under the Criminal Code (law no. 40/2009 Coll.) by at least five years imprisonment, the courts of first instance become the regional courts.

An appeal against the first-instance decision of the district court goes to the regional court. Appeals against decisions rendered on the first instance by regional courts are assessed by a High Court on appeal.

The Supreme Court decides on extraordinary appeals (dovolání) against final appellate decisions of regional courts and high courts. An extraordinary appeal shall be limited to legal, not factual, reasons set by the Code of Criminal Procedure, and to cases in which the punishment of life imprisonment has been imposed (Art. 265b CCrimP). There is another special remedy in criminal matters before the Supreme Court, the so-called complaint for violation of law (stížnost pro porušení zákona). Only the Minister of Justice is entitled to file this extraordinary remedy before the Supreme Court; its availability is limited to substantial flaws in the procedure, which may have caused the illegality of a (otherwise final) decision (Art. 266 CCrimP).

2.4.2. Administrative Courts

The organization of the administrative justice (správní soudnictví) is laid down in Act No. 150/2002 Coll., the Code of Administrative Justice [CAJ 2002].

Specialized administrative chambers or specialized single-judges at regional courts hear and rule on cases related to administrative law at first instance. The Supreme Administrative Court (Nejvyšší správní soud), which is the highest judicial body specialized exclusively in the field of administrative justice, as a court of second instance decides on cassation complaints (a type of remedy against a decision of a regional court in matters of administrative justice) and as a court of first instance decides on other matters specified by law (Art. 12 (1) CAJ 2002).

The task of the administrative courts is first of all to protect individual rights in the area of public law. Administrative courts also rule on other public law matters where individuals’ rights are not affected (typically electoral matters or competence conflicts).

Regional courts as administrative courts provide protection against a decision of an administrative authority, protection against inaction by an administrative authority, and protection against unlawful interference by an administrative authority. They also protect unlawful measures of a general nature, which is a hybrid form between an administrative decision and a regulation.

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Administrative Court, besides ruling on cassation complaints, comprises state-wide electoral matters (including the presidential election) and matters of political parties and political movements including their dissolution. The Supreme Administrative Court is also called to decide some conflicts of competence between administrative authorities (competence conflicts between authorities of state administration on one side and authorities of self-governing units on the other side, conflicts between self-governing units versus each other, and conflicts between authorities of central state administration versus each other, cf. Art. 97 (1) CAJ 2002). The Supreme Administrative Court is also the disciplinary court in matters of judges, state prosecutors, and enforcement agents.

Competence conflicts arising from the duality of law (civil law versus public law) between the administrative court and the civil courts and conflicts between civil courts and administrative agencies (judiciary versus administration) are resolved by a Special Panel (zvláštní senát) composed of an equal number of justices of the Supreme Court (representing the civil-law standpoint) and the Supreme Administrative Court (representing the public-law standpoint). Further details are set by law no. 131/2002 Coll., on Deciding Certain Conflicts of Competence (in Czech).

The decisions of the Supreme Administrative Court are published in two ways. Firstly, there is the official Collection of the Decisions of the Supreme Administrative Court (Sbírka rozhodnutí Nejvyššího správního soudu). Until 2016, the Collection was published in a paper edition. Since 2017, the Collection has been published only online (in Czech only). This Collection contains a selection of crucial decisions of the Supreme Administrative Court. All Court’s decisions are also made publicly available (in Czech only) on the website of the Court.

2.4.3. The Constitutional Court

The constitutional jurisdiction is represented by the specialized Constitutional Court (Ústavní soud), seated in Brno. Basic provisions concerning the functioning of the Constitutional Court are contained in Articles 83 – 89 CCR. Detailed provisions are to be found in law no. 182/1993 Coll. – the Constitutional Court Act.

The structure and functions of the Czech Constitutional Court are, similar to its Austrian and German counterparts, rooted in the Kelsenian conception of constitutional jurisdictions and constitutional review. The then Czechoslovak Constitutional Court, founded already in 1920, was one of the first constitutional courts worldwide.

The contemporary Czech Constitutional Court is the judicial body responsible for the protection of constitutionality (Art. 83 CCR). It is composed of fifteen justices appointed for ten years (re-appointment possible). The justices are appointed by the President of the Republic with the consent of the Senate.

There are various types of procedures before the Constitutional Court (cf. Art. 87 CCR). The most important ones are twofold: the “abstract” and the “concrete” review of constitutionality.

Generally, the Constitutional Court reviews solely the constitutionality of an act. The difference is the type of act subjected to review.

An “abstract” review is concerned with statutes that conflict with the constitutional order, no application to an individual case is necessary. The number of potential applicants in this type of review is limited to: the President of the Republic, a group of deputies or senators, the government (under special circumstances), a panel of the Constitutional Court in connection with the decision-making of a constitutional complaint, or, under certain circumstances, the one who filed a constitutional complaint (law no. 182/1993 Coll., on the Constitutional Court, § 64 (1)). The Constitutional Court also has the power to review legal regulations other than statutes (so-called secondary legislation). In this case, the Constitutional Court considers not only constitutional compatibility but also statutory compatibility. The number of potential applicants in this type of proceeding is wider and includes respective ministries, the Public Defendant of Rights, higher territorial self-governing units et al. (law no. 182/1993 Coll., on the Constitutional Court, § 64 (2)). The Constitution (Art. 87 (3) CCR provides for an opportunity to shift this power to the Supreme Administrative Court by a statute, but it has not been used. Therefore, both statutes adopted by the Parliament and regulations adopted by administrative authorities may solely be annulled by the Constitutional Court.

The second type of review of constitutionality is the “concrete” review. This is realized in the form of decisions over constitutional complaints against final decisions or other encroachments by public authorities infringing constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights and freedoms. In this proceeding, any type of act or omission of a public authority including a judicial decision can be challenged, if the applicant claims that his/her constitutionally guaranteed rights and freedoms have been violated by the preceding act by a public authority and after he/she has exhausted all available remedies.

The jurisdiction of the Constitutional Court also comprises the ruling on impeachment of the President of the Republic based on charges of the Senate brought with the consent of the Chamber of Deputies. The first charge against the President for high treason in the history of the Czech Republic was brought in March 2013 against the outgoing President Václav Klaus for, inter alia, granting an amnesty. Although granting an amnesty is a presidential power ensured by the Constitution, it was criticized, because it ended several prosecutions of defendants charged with serious economic crimes. However, the Constitutional Court did not decide on the merits and stopped the proceedings, because the term of office of President Klaus had ended in the meantime.

Decisions of the Constitutional Court are published in the official collection of decisions of the Court (Sbírka nálezů a usnesení Ústavního soudu). The Court’s jurisprudence is also available for free online, in Czech only. There is, however, a representative selection of the Court’s judgments translated into English.

2.5. Other State-Wide Authorities

Some state-wide institutions are more or less independent of bodies of the three branches of state power. Similarly, like some other modern constitutions of European countries, the Constitution of the Czech Republic is not based on a strict triad of state power. Besides the legislative, executive, and judicial powers, the Constitution establishes other specialized authorities – the Supreme Audit Office (Chapter V CCR) and the Czech National Bank (Chapter VI CCR). The Public Defender of Rights (the Ombudsperson) has been established only by an ordinary statute, differing from some other European countries.

From the material perspective, the three institutions may be recognized as executive or administrative authorities or authorities with executive or administrative functions (and as such their decisions or other acts might be reviewed by the administrative courts in certain situations), but formally they are authority’s sui generis, excluded from the standard three components of state power.

2.5.1. The Supreme Audit Office (Nejvyšší Kontrolní Úřad)

As mentioned above, The Supreme Audit Office (hereinafter SAO) was established by the Constitution (Art. 97 CCR). More details on the tasks of the office, its organization, and its functioning are laid out by law no. 166/1993 Coll., on the Supreme Audit Office (hereinafter SAO Act). The SAO is an independent state body that audits the management of state property and the implementation of the state budget. The competence of the SAO comprises neither auditing of municipal and regional property and finances nor auditing of business corporations owned by the state, municipalities, or regions. A constitutional amendment widening the competence in this respect has been discussed in the Parliament but has not been adopted so far.

The head of the SAO is the President of the SAO, whose deputy is the Vice-President of the SAO. Both are appointed by the President of the Republic on the nomination of the Chamber of Deputies. Their offices are time-limited (nine years). The SAO Act establishes also other collegiate bodies of the SAO. The President and Vice-President may be also recalled from their office by the President of the Republic on the proposal of the Chamber of Deputies, but only for strictly limited reasons (Art. 10 (9) SAO Act) which is one of the most important guarantees of the independence of the SAO.

2.5.2. The Czech National Bank (Česká Národní Banka)

The Czech National Bank is the state central bank, entrusted with maintaining price stability (Art. 98 CCR). Detailed regulation is laid down by law no. 6/1993 Coll., the Czech National Bank Act.

Its competence comprises issuing banknotes and coins, setting the monetary policy, managing the circulation of the Czech currency and the payment system, and supervising the financial market, bank sector, and other financial institutions.

Its supreme body is the Bank Board, which consists of the Governor of the CNB, two Vice-Governors of the CNB, and other board members. All members of the Bank Board are appointed by the President of the Republic for a six-year term.

2.5.3. The Public Defender of Rights (Veřejný Ochránce Práv)

The office of the Public Defender of Rights (the Ombudsperson) has been established by law no. 349/1999 Coll., the Public Defender of Rights Act (hereinafter PDR Act). The Czech Public Defender of Rights represents the major model of “parliamentary ombudsperson.” He/she is elected by the Chamber of Deputies for a term of six years (one re-election is admissible). Two candidates are nominated by the President of the Republic and two are nominated by the Senate. He/she, among other duties, submits an annual report on his/her activities to the Chamber of Deputies, some authors therefore consider this institution as an instrument of parliamentary oversight of public administration.

His/her task is to defend individuals against such conduct of authorities and institutes enumerated in Art. 1 (2 -4) PDR Act that does not comply with principles of a democratic state, rule of law, and good administration, as well as against illegal inactivity of those authorities (Art. 1 PDR Act). He/she also visits places where people restricted in their freedom by public authority, or because of their dependence on care provided, are or may be confined to strengthen the protection of these persons against torture, cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, or punishment and other forms of ill-treatment (Art. 1 (3) PDR Act). He/she also monitors observing equality and non-discrimination rules (Art. 1 (5) PDR Act), detention of foreigners and enforcement of administrative expulsion (Art. 1 (6) PDR Act), observing rights of persons with disabilities according to international treaties (Art. 1 (7) PDR Act), and observing the right of free movement of EU citizens and their family members (Art. 1 (8) PDR Act).

The protection provided by the Public Defender of Rights is less formal than the protection provided, according to the Code of Administrative Procedure or Code of Administrative Justice, nevertheless, the oversight does not result in a legally binding decision, but the results are only recommendations.

To protect the public interest, he/she has the special legitimation to challenge a decision of an administrative authority at an administrative court (Art. 66 (3) CAJ 2002) and to seek abrogation of a law other than a statute at the Constitutional Court (Art. 64 (2) Constitutional Court Act).

The Czech legal system is a civil law system. It can be grouped within the Germanic continental legal culture. Substantial areas of law are codified. The following are the main codes.

The Civil Code – law no. 89/2012 Coll. [CivC] is the basic code, providing foundations for almost all the areas of private law and the legal system generally, containing provisions on legal personality and legal capacity, legal rights and obligations, types of obligations and contracts, unjust enrichment, civil liability, and succession. The so-called “New Civil Code” was adopted after an age-long work on re-codification in 2012. It came into force on 1st January 2014. In addition to the New Civil Code law, no. 90/2012 Coll. on Business Corporations and a new law on Private International Law (Law of Conflicts, law no. 91/2012 Coll.) have been adopted and many other laws have been revised to supplement the recodification.

The previous Civil Code (law no. 40/1964 Coll.) was based on socialistic perspectives of civil law and after its overthrow in 1989, it had to be amended to align it with the principles of democratic society; however, most of its wording remained rooted in the circumstances of the socialistic society. The New Civil Code, inspired by civil codes of democratic European countries with the civil law tradition and by the Austrian General Civil Code (Allgemeines Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, ABGB) from 1811, codifies nearly the whole civil law area including commercial contracts, family, and customer relations, which have been currently dealt with by separate laws so far. The New Civil Code is based on civil law standards shared by mature democratic European countries. It specifies or modifies rules in areas that were inadequately regulated by the Civil Code 1964 and emphasizes the autonomous will of individuals, the principle of honesty and protection of goodwill, and the principle that contracts and promises are binding (“pacta sunt servanda”).

Among others, the Commercial Code (Act no. 513/1991 Coll.), which has regulated relationships between undertakings and commercial activity generally types of commercial contracts and the law of companies until December 2013, has been repealed by the New Civil Code. Abrogating the duality of regulation of civil and commercial obligations is one of the most important changes brought by the New Civil Code. It affects not only provisions on individual types of contracts but also general provisions on obligations (e.g. concerning time bar or liability).

The Criminal Code – law no. 40/2009 Coll. [CrimC] – defines the types of behavior constituting a criminal offense and contains an enumerative list of criminal offenses and types of punishment.

The Czech law also recognizes the criminal liability of legal entities (Act No. 418/2011 Coll. on Liability of Legal Entities).

The following are the main procedural codes.

The Code of Civil Procedure – law no. 99/1963 Coll. [CCivP] – basic code of judicial procedure containing the rules for the courts of general jurisdiction acting in civil and commercial cases. In 2014, following the recodification of civil law, a great revision of the Code of Civil Procedure entered into force. Proceedings in disputes are dealt with by the Code of Civil Procedure and rules of indisputable proceedings are comprised in a new law on special judicial proceedings (see above).

The Code of Criminal Procedure – law no. 141/1961 Coll. [CCrimP] – contains procedural rules for the investigation, prosecution, and execution of sanctions in matters falling under the Criminal Code. Additional rules are contained in the Act on Juvenile Justice (Act No. 218/2003 Coll. on Juvenile Justice).

The Code of Administrative Procedure – law no. 500/2004 Coll. [CAP] – lays down substantial principles of practice of public administration and codifies procedural rules for deciding on rights and duties of individuals, issuing a certificate, making a public administrative contract, adopting a measure of general application, and every other activity of an administrative authority while executing public power.

The Code of Administrative Justice – law no. 150/2002 Coll. [CAJ 2002] – lays down the jurisdiction and competence of administrative courts, some of the issues concerning the organization of courts and the status of judges, the procedure of administrative courts, and rights and duties of parties to proceedings and other persons in administrative justice. The jurisdiction of administrative justice is laid down so that administrative courts provide protection to the individual public-law rights of both natural persons and legal entities and make decisions in other matters provided by the Code of Administrative Justice.

3.1. Sources of Law

Sources of law are nowhere fully or exhaustively listed. The legal order is assorted in a pyramidal-type structure (the Kelsenian pyramid of norms); where the lower levels of the pyramid have to be compatible with the higher ones. The hierarchy of sources of law is based on constitutional and doctrinal principles, sometimes explicitly mentioned in ordinary statutes, explained by the legal doctrine, and followed by the practice and case law.

The structure is as follows:

  • Constitution and constitutional laws (including the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms)
  • International treaties approved by the Parliament and ratified by the President of the Republic (Art. 10 CCR)
  • Statutes adopted by the Parliament
  • Derived legislation (adopted by the government, ministries, and other authorities of state administration) and legislative acts of territorial self-governing units

Since the Czech Republic acceded to the European Union, EU law and its legislative sources (primary law – treaties establishing the EC/EU and amending treaties, secondary law – regulations, directives, decisions, etc.) have also become relevant sources of law.

3.2. Legislation

3.2.1. Types of Legislation

The various types of legislation are distinguished by two key elements:

  • Who can adopt a legislative act?
    • The Parliament – constitutional laws, ratification of some international treaties, and laws;
    • The government, ministries, or authorities of state administration – orders and regulations (derived from secondary legislation);
    • Self-governing units within the delegated competence (derived secondary legislation);
    • Self-governing units within the independent self-governing competence (so-called original secondary legislation).
  • What majority (or legislative procedure) is required for the adoption of the legislation? This distinction applies mostly to the Parliament, where various legislations may be adopted with different legislative majority being required:
    • Constitutional majority – the concurring will of three-fifths of all the members of the Chamber of Deputies and three-fifths of all members of the Senate present (Art. 39 (4) CRR);
    • Qualified majority in both chambers – the concurrence of an absolute majority of all Deputies and an absolute majority of all Senators (Art. 39 (3) CCR);
    • Consent of both Chambers – only a simple majority in both Chambers is necessary, but both have to agree on the bill, i.e. the Chamber of Deputies cannot outvote the Senate (Art. 40 CCR);
    • Simple majority – a simple majority of the present and voting members of each chamber is required, one-third of the members of each chamber constituting a quorum (Art. 39 CRR);
    • Simple majority in Senate only (Art. 33 CCR).

Constitutional statutes (ústavní zákony) are legislative acts of the highest legal force. They are passed by a special majority being necessary in both Chambers of Parliament and with the agreement of both chambers (the concurrence of three-fifths of all Deputies and three-fifths of all Senators present – Art. 39 (4) CRR).

There is a plurality of constitutional statutes (i.e. not a single constitutional document), all the constitutional statutes form the so-called constitutional order (ústavní pořádek) of the Czech Republic (Art. 112 CCR).

The most important constitutional laws are:

Constitutional law no. 347/1997 Coll., on the Creation of Higher Territorial Self-Governing Units

3.2.2. International Treaties (Mezinárodní Smlouvy)

Generally, the Czech Constitution divides treaties into parliamentary treaties (approval of both Chambers of Parliament is required to ratify them; Art. 49 and 10 (a) CCR), presidential, governmental, and departmental treaties. Art. 63 (1) (b) CCR confers power to negotiate and ratify treaties on the President of the Republic with the countersignature of a competent member of the government (presidential treaties) and, at the same time, it entitles the President of the Republic to confer concluding treaties on the government (governmental treaties) or, with its consent, on individual members of the government (departmental treaties). Governmental and departmental treaties do not become a part of the legal order based on general incorporation enforced through the Constitution, nevertheless, they can become a part of the legal order by the means of partial incorporation enforced through a law. Their application is then possible only based on explicit implementation and in cases that do not yield application priority over law.

The category of parliamentary treaties can be further divided into treaties on fundamental human rights and freedoms that have, according to the case law of the Constitutional Court, a privileged status (see below), treaties under Art. 10 (a) CCR (treaties founding the EC/EU and amending treaties) and other parliamentary treaties.

The basic constitutional provision regarding the relationship between international and Czech national law is represented by Art. 10 CCR. According to Art. 10 CCR, promulgated international agreements, the ratification of which has been approved by the Parliament and which are binding on the Czech Republic, shall constitute a part of the legal order. This provision involves treaties that meet the above-stated conditions of incorporation into national legal order without the need for further transposition (legal monism).

Article 10 CCR provides for the application priority of treaties. Nevertheless, under Art. 10 CCR precedence of treaties applies solely to “ordinary statute” not to constitutional laws. Priority relates only to the application of a statute. It is not a derogation priority. A national law that conflicts with a treaty under Art. 10 CCR shall not be applied; however, the Constitution does not call for its repeal. Therefore, a situation may arise in which provisions of a statute (or other generally binding provisions) and provisions of treaties may enter mutual conflict. Statutes or their provisions that would eventually conflict with a treaty under Art. 10 CCR would not be a priori invalid; nevertheless, they would not be applicable in cases falling within the scope of a treaty. In the case of a conflict between a statute and a treaty, Art. 10 CCR imposes an obligation on public authorities to accord priority application to a treaty to achieve its full effect (effect utile). On the practical level, the previous is a basis for provisions laid down in Art. 95 CCR, in which a court is entitled to assess the conformity of a statute with a treaty. In case the court concludes that the law to be applied conflicts with a treaty, it is obliged to apply the treaty. However, as compared with the former constitutional regulation, in such case, a court does not submit the law to the Constitutional Court because treaties (excluding treaties on human rights and fundamental freedoms) do not make part of the constitutional order of the Czech Republic, Art. 95 (2), Art. 112 CCR.

The so-called “Euro-Amendment” to the Constitution (Constitutional Act No. 395/2001 Coll., effective from 1st June 2002) meant an essential change in the relation between national and international law which is referred to as the transition from dualism towards monism. Before the amendment became effective, Art. 10 CCR had applied only to treaties on human rights and fundamental freedoms. In relation to judicial review of constitutionality, these treaties had a more privileged position than treaties under the current provisions of Art. 10 CCR. Compared to the current constitutional provision, according to which treaties under Art. 10 CCR are accorded application priority, under Art. 10 CCR before the Euro-Amendment came into force all statutes conflicting with treaties on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms had to be repealed (i.e. derogation priority). Nevertheless, the Constitutional Court in its ruling (dated 25 June 2002, file ref. Pl. ÚS 36/01) concluded that the procedural protection of basic rights and freedoms cannot be limited (“once achieved a standard of protection of basic rights and freedoms cannot be impaired“), and therefore, if a statute gets in conflict with a treaty on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, instead of being simply left without application, such statute must be repealed by the Constitutional Court, notwithstanding the fact that Art. 10 CCR does not specify this requirement expressly. According to the Constitutional Court, the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms is a part of “superconstitutional law” and belongs to essential requisites of a democratic legal state within the meaning of Art. 9 (2) CCR. Therefore, within the hierarchy of legal order parliamentary treaties on human rights and fundamental freedoms de facto stand on the level of constitutional order, i.e. they have higher legal force than a statute adopted by Parliament, and a statute that conflicts with a treaty on human rights and fundamental freedoms not only cannot be applied, moreover, it must be repealed. Other parliamentary treaties stand on the same level as “regular” statutes (i.e. they do not have a higher legal force than a statute). Nevertheless, they have priority in terms of application, i.e. in the case of a mutual conflict a treaty is accorded priority in application over an act.

Ordinary statutes (zákony) are the universal form of legislative decision-making adopted by the Parliament. For a statute to be adopted, the simple majority of the present members in the Chamber of Deputies and the simple majority of present senators (i.e. simple majority in both houses) are required (Art. 39 (1) and (2) CCR).

In the legislative process leading to the adoption of an ordinary statute, the political will of the Chamber of Deputies is decisive. If, during this legislative procedure, the Senate rejects a bill, the Chamber of Deputies can uphold the bill and pass it against the will of the Senate by an absolute majority of all Deputies (Art. 47 CCR). The same goes for the veto of the President of the Republic, which can also be overturned, and the bill approved by an absolute majority of all the Deputies (Art. 50 (2) CCR).

Consent laws are a special sort of law, the adoption of which requires the concurrence of the will of both chambers, i.e. the Chamber of Deputies cannot overturn a negative vote in the Senate. These types of laws are provided in Art. 39 (3) CCR and Art. 40 CRR (by absolute majority and qualified majority respectively) and include issues such as electoral laws, laws concerning the principles of dealings and relations of both chambers, movements of troops, or declarations of war.

Senate’s legislative measure (zákonné opatření senátu) is a special type of legislation with the force of statute (Art. 33 CCR). Its purpose is to keep the legislative power of the Czech Republic operational even when the Chamber of Deputies is dissolved. Should such a situation arise, the Senate is empowered to adopt legislative measures concerning matters which cannot be delayed, and which would otherwise require the adoption of a statute. It is meant as an interim and conditional legislative form, as legislative measures of the Senate must be approved by the Chamber of Deputies at its first meeting after the election. Should they not be ratified, they cease to be in force. This special type of legislative act was adopted in 2013 for the first time after the Rusnok’s government had lost the confidence vote, it was the first time when the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved (art. 35 (2) CCR).

Governmental order (nařízení vlády) is a form of legislation adopted by the government as a collegiate body. It is recognized as a form of secondary-derived legislation. Its legal force is lower than the force of a statute (secundum et intra legem, secondary legislation) and its purpose is to implement a statute (derived legislation). Albeit being a form of derived legislation, an express statutory provision authorizing the government to adopt a precise order is not necessary; the government is entitled to adopt orders by the Constitution itself. “To implement statutes, and while remaining within the bounds thereof, the government is authorized to issue orders” (Art. 78 CCR).

Regulations (vyhlášky) are another principal form of secondarily derived legislation, adopted by ministries and other administrative agencies (central, regional, and local) or bodies of territorial self-governing units but when governing delegated competence. “If they are so empowered by statute, the ministries, other administrative authorities, and bodies of territorial self-governing units may issue regulations based on and within the bounds of that statute” (Art. 79 (3) CCR). A regulation like a governmental order is adopted to implement a statute. Unlike governmental orders, regulations can be adopted only upon an express empowerment contained in the respective law. Being a secondary legislative act, regulations must of course stay within the bounds of the law (Art. 79 (3) CCR).

Generally, binding ordinances (obecně závazné vyhlášky) are adopted by representative bodies of territorial self-governing units within their self-governing competence (cf. Art. 104 (3) CCR). Being a form of secondary legislation, they must comply with ordinary and constitutional statutes. However, unlike governmental orders and regulations, they are not recognized as a form of derived legislation, as they are not adopted to implement a statute, they are described as original legislation. Generally, binding ordinances regulate matters falling under the self-governing competence that are not regulated by statutes at all or that are regulated by statutes but with a different purpose of regulation. However, Municipal Law and Regional Law limit the original character of generally binding ordinances when specifying purposes for which duties on individuals may be imposed by a generally binding ordinance.

3.2.3. Legislative Process

The legislative process varies according to the type of legislation adopted. If concentrating on the legislative process in the Parliament (i.e. adoption of statutes), all the bills (návrhy zákonů) are introduced in the Chamber of Deputies. A bill may be introduced by a Deputy, a group of Deputies, the Senate, the government, or a representative body of a higher territorial self-governing unit (i.e. regions) (Art. 42 CCR). In practice, the great majority of the bills are introduced by the government.

The detailed provisions of the (floor) debate in both chambers of the Parliament are regulated by the Rules of Procedure of both chambers (by law no. 90/1995 Coll., Standing Rules of the Chamber of Deputies Act and by law no. 107/1999 Coll., Standing Rules of the Senate Act, respectively).

3.2.4. Promulgation and Publication of the Legislation

For legislation to be valid, it must be duly promulgated first (Art. 52 CRR). The mode of promulgation of constitutional and ordinary statutes and state-wide regulations by administrative authorities is laid down by law no. 309/1999 Coll., the Collection of Laws and the Collection of International Treaties Act. All treaties by which the Czech Republic is bound must be published in the Collection of International Treaties, where the authoritative foreign version, as well as the Czech version, is published simultaneously.

The general rule is that the legal act or the treaty promulgated in the Collection of Laws and International Treaties comes into effect on January 1 or July 1 of the calendar year; however, a law may specify a special different date.

If an act is published in the Collection of laws (Sbírka zákonů, abbreviated in Czech as “Sb.”), the standard form of citation is: “number of the document”/“year of the publication” Coll.

The number of every document is unique. Document number 1/1993 Coll. thus refers to the first document published in the Collection of Laws in the year 1993, which was the Constitution of the Czech Republic. The publication in the Collection of International Treaties (Sbírka mezinárodních smluv, abbreviated in Czech as “Sb.m.s.”) follows the same numbering principles.

Both Collections are accessible online in a “PDF” format from 1945 onwards on the Ministry of Interior web page.

There is also the Collection of legal regulations of territorial self-governing units and some administrative agencies (Act No. 35/2021 Coll. on Collection of legal regulations of territorial self-governing units and some administrative authorities) in which generally binding ordinances and regulations of self-governing territorial units and regulations of some administrative agencies are promulgated if the law provides so.

The only authentic version of Czech legislation is in the Czech language. There are no systematic official translations of the legislation in force in English; the translations, to which this guide refers, are unofficial translations compiled by various public or private institutions.

3.3. Case Law

From the traditional continental dogmatic point of view, case law is not recognized as a formal source of law. In practice, however, the decisions of the courts, especially the decisions of the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Court, considerably shape the legal system and thus progressive legal theorists admit that case law works as a material source of law.

Neither legal doctrine is a source of law in the Czech legal system, although there is some influence of the legal doctrine on the legal practice, especially on the case law of higher courts.

The general legal program offered by the Czech law public law schools is the five-year M.A. (magistr, abbreviated as Mgr., written before the name). It is the qualifying degree and the minimal requirement for any traditional legal profession (attorney, prosecutor, judge).

Higher degrees are the JUDr. (iuris utrisque doctor), “doctor of both laws” (secular and church law), or currently rather iuris universalis doctor, “Doctor of General Law” so-called “small” doctorate in law, written before the name, and the research degree of Ph.D. (“great” doctorate in law, written after the name). The small doctorate is obtained by submitting a written piece of work and passing an oral state exam any time after completing the Master’s degree. Its scholarly importance is limited, but it serves as a traditional badge recognizing the completed legal education. The great doctorate is obtained after completing (at least) three years of doctoral studies and research resulting in a dissertation thesis. Other academic titles one may encounter especially with more senior lawyers are the CSc. (Candidate of Science) and DrSc. (Doctor of Science), both written after the name, which are former counterparts of the Ph.D. degree. They are no longer awarded.

Four public universities offer full legal education: Prague, Brno, Olomouc, and Pilsen. There is no Czech private law school providing the full legal education required for traditional legal professions; however, there are some private schools that provide education in specialized legal fields.

Charles University Law Faculty (Prague) is the oldest and can be said to be the most respected law school in the Czech Republic. The University was founded in 1348 by the Czech King and Roman Emperor Charles IV and is the oldest university north of the Alps and east of Paris. The law faculty was one of the then four faculties of the university, which was German-speaking at that time. The current student body of the law faculty numbers about 4,000.

Masaryk University Law Faculty (Brno) was founded in 1919. It is named after the first Czechoslovak president, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. The Law Faculty was closed down in 1950 during the Communist regime and re-established in 1969 at the time of the so-called Prague Spring. The faculty has become a reputable school and research institution as well. The faculty comprises about 3,000 students.

Palacky University Law Faculty (Olomouc) was originally founded in 1566, but it closed in 1860. The University was re-established in 1947 and the Law Faculty after the overturn of the regime was re-established only in 1991. The current number of students is about 1,300. Being the second youngest Czech law faculty, it has become a very dynamic law school with several research results. It emphasizes clinical education.

The West-Bohemian University Law Faculty (Pilsen) is the youngest law faculty in the Czech Republic. It was founded in 1993.

Apart from the teaching institutions, there is also the Institute of State and Law within the Academy of Science of the Czech Republic. The Institute is a research-only institution.

There is a special state institution of the justice sector – the Judicial Academy (Justiční akademie), located in Kroměříž. It was established in 2002 under the Judges Act for the continuing education and training of judges and prosecutors.

4.2.1. Attorney (Advokát)

Attorneys provide individuals with legal services for remuneration. The provision of legal services means representation before a court of law and other authorities, defense in criminal cases, granting legal advice, drawing up legal papers, and processing legal analyses and other forms of legal aid if carried out systematically and for a fee.

An attorney is a person who has completed a master’s degree in law followed by three years of professional training under the mentorship of a senior attorney and successfully passed the bar exam. The list of attorneys entitled to practice may be viewed online.

The exercise of the profession is regulated by the Act No. 85/1996 Coll., Advocacy Act. The professional body of attorneys is the Czech Bar Association, which is a professional self-governing entity.

4.2.2. Public Prosecutor (Státní Zástupce)

The public prosecutor represents the state (public interest) in criminal proceedings. Public prosecutors are appointed following a Master’s studies in law, three years of training, and a professional exam. The functions, organization, and hierarchy of the public prosecution are laid down in law no. 283/1993 Coll., Public Prosecutor’s Office Act.

The list of state prosecutors may be viewed online.

4.2.3. Public Notary (Notář)

A public notary is a private person entrusted with the public office of a notary, which entails activities like the drawing of public documents, wills, verification, and legalization of documents; accepting deposits; etc. The notary is also authorized by the state to act as a court commissioner, e.g. in estate proceedings.

The profession is regulated by law no. 358/1992 Coll., Public Notaries and their Functions Act.

A public notary must have completed a master’s degree in law and five years of practical professional training and pass a professional exam. There is only a limited number of public notaries in the Czech Republic (numerus clausus).

The professional self-regulating body is the Notarial Chamber of the Czech Republic (in Czech).

4.2.4. Judge (Soudce)

Judges are appointed by the President of the Republic, following a master’s degree in law, three years of professional training, and the successful passing of judicial examinations. A judge must be at the time of his/her appointment at least thirty years old. The list of current judges may be viewed online.

4.2.5. Executor (Exekutor)

The executor is a private person entrusted with the enforcement of civil and commercial judicial decisions and awards (Act No. 120/2001 Coll., on Judicial Executors and Executions).

The access to the profession is conditional upon having completed a master’s degree in law, three years of professional training, and a successful passing of a professional exam. There is a professional self-governing chamber – the Executors’ Chamber of the Czech Republic (Exekutorská komora České republiky).

4.2.6. Tax Advisor (Daňový Poradce)

A tax advisor is not per se a legal profession; under the law no 523/1992 Coll., on Tax Consultancy and on the Chamber of Tax Advisers of the Czech Republic, which regulates the activity of tax advisors, a law degree is not required for admission as a tax advisor. There are, however, a growing number of tax advisors who are either lawyers by original education or are knowledgeable in both economics/accountancy and law.

The professional body is the Chamber of Tax Advisors of the Czech Republic (Komora daňových poradců).

The most common sites providing updates on the newest developments in Czech and European law are:

5.1. Legislation Online

5.2. Law Reports and Case-Law Online

  • The decisions of the Constitutional Court:
  • The decisions of the Supreme Court:
    • There is the official selection of the Court’s case law, published in its Collection of the decisions of the Supreme Court (Sbírka rozhodnutí Nejvyššího soudu).
    • All decisions of the Supreme Court (from 2000 onwards) are also accessible on the website of the Court.
  • The decision of the Supreme Administrative Court:
    • Are published in the official Collection of the Decisions of the Supreme Administrative Court (Sbírka rozhodnutí Nejvyššího správního soudu).
    • All Court’s decisions are also accessible online on its website.
  • The Salvia Database is a private collection of some of the case law of the Czech courts.
  • Most of the legal databases listed below in point 5.3. also contain a selection of some of the case law.

The following legal databases are available upon subscription. They contain a compendium of all Czech and European valid law (consolidated versions) and most of the available case law.

  • Lexgalaxy – the oldest legal database.
  • ASPI – a more “user-friendly” and accessible database, in which the navigation is easier even for a less experienced user.
  • Beck-online – offers most of the standard functions and integrates a substantive amount of doctrinal literature and full-text books and articles.
  • Codexis – a quite new legal database with some practical functions, which became more popular, especially among young lawyers.

5.4. Major Law Journals and Reviews

  • Právník The Lawyer – the oldest Czech academic law journal published since 1862, currently being published by the Institute of State and Law within the Czech Academy of Science;
  • Právní rozhledy Legal Horizons – most widely read professional journal, published every 2 weeks by C.H.Beck;
  • Soudní rozhledy Judicial Horizons – monthly journal, published by C.H.Beck, specializing in case notes and case-law monitoring;
  • Jurisprudence Jurisprudence – monthly journal specializing in case-law comments and annotations;
  • Bulletin advokacie The Advocacy Bulletin [Advokatni Denik] – a monthly journal published by the Czech Bar Association;
  • Právní fórum Legal Forum – monthly legal journal, published by Wolters Kluwer Publishing;
  • Časopis pro právní vědu a praxi Journal for Legal Science and Practice – quadrennial law review, published by the Masaryk University Law Faculty;
  • Právní rádce Legal Advisor – monthly praxis-oriented legal journal, online contents (with a selection of free articles);
  • Trestněprávní revue Revue of Criminal Law – monthly journal published by C.H.Beck;
  • Ad notam – the monthly journal of the Czech Chamber of Notaries;
  • Správní právo Administrative Law – a journal published every 2 months by the Ministry of Interior, focusing on administrative law and administrative issues;
  • Revue církevního práva Revue of Ecclesiastic Law – occasional journal focusing on issues of ecclesiastic and canon law;
  • Acta Universitatis Carolinae Iuridica published by the Charles University Law Faculty;
  • Časopis pro právní vědu a praxi (Journal for Jurisprudence and Legal Practice) published by the Masaryk University Law Faculty;
  • Acta Iuridica Olomucensia was published by the Palacky University Law Faculty.

5.5. Major Law Blogs

  • Jiné právo – most attended Czech law blog;
  • Lexfórum – law blog dealing with current legal developments in Czech, Slovak and European law.

Major Czech publishers of legal literature include:

5.7. Law Libraries

5.8. Bibliography

Theory of Law

  • Weyr, František, Teorie práva. Brno: Orbis, 1936.
  • Holländer, Pavel, Základy všeobecné státovědy. Praha: Všehrd 1995.
  • Knapp, Viktor, Teorie práva. Praha: C.H. Beck, 1995.
  • Gerloch, Aleš, et al., Teorie práva. Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2010.
  • Harvánek, Jaromír, et al., Teorie práva. Plzeň: Vydavatelství a nakladatelství Aleš Čeněk, 2013.

Legal History

  • Baxa, Bohumil, Dějiny práva na území republiky československé. Brno: Právník, 1935.
  • Čáda, František, Povšechné právní dějiny československé. Brno: Právník, 1947.
  • Kuklík, Josef, Mýty a realita tzv. Benešových dekretů. Praha: Linde, 2002.
  • Malý, Karel, Dějiny českého a československého práva do roku 1945. 3rd Ed., Praha: Linde, 2003.
  • Bobek, Michal, Molek, Pavel, Šimíček, Vojtěch (eds.), Komunistické právo v Československu – kapitoly z dějin bezpráví. Brno: Masaryk University Press, 2009.
  • Kühn, Zdeněk, Aplikace práva soudcem v éře středoevropského komunismu a transformace: analýza příčin postkomunistické právní krize. Praha: C.H. Beck, 2005.
  • Faix, Martin, Svaček, Ondřej, Dealing with the Past: Prosecution and Punishment of Communist Crimes in Central and Eastern European Countries. Espaco Juridico Journal of Law, 2015, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 31-50.

Roman Law

  • Heyrovský, Leopold, Dějiny a systém soukromého práva římského. 7th Ed., Bratislava: Právnická fakulta Univerzity Komenského, 1929.
  • Kincl, Jaromír, Urfus, Valentin, Skřejpek, Michal, Římské právo. 2nd Ed., Praha: C.H. Beck, 1995.
  • Sommer, Otakar, Prameny soukromého práva římského. Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2011.

Constitutional Law

  • Šimíček, Vojtěch, Ústavní stížnost. 3rd Ed., Praha: Linde, 2005.
  • Sládeček, Vladimír, Mikule, Vladimír, Syllová, Jindřiška, Ústava České republiky. Komentář. Praha: C.H. Beck, 2007.
  • Šimíček, Vojtěch (et al.). Ústava – komentář. Praha: Linde, 2010.
  • Wagnerová, Eliška, Šimíček, Vojtěch, Langášek, Tomáš, Pospíšil, Ivo, Listina základních práv a svobod. Komentář, Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2012.
  • Bartoň, Michal (et al.). Základní práva, Praha: Leges, 2016.

Administrative Law

  • Hoetzel, Jiří, Československé správní právo: Část všeobecná. 2nd Ed., Praha: Melantrich, 1937.
  • Hoetzel, Jiří, Weyr, František (eds.), Slovník veřejného práva československého. Brno: Rovnost, 1948.
  • Průcha, Petr, Správní právo – obecná část. 8th Ed., Praha: Masarykova univerzita a Doplněk, 2012.
  • Sládeček, Vladimír, Obecné správní právo. 4th Ed., Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2019.
  • Sládeček, Vladimír, Pouperová, Olga, Madleňáková, Lucia, Správní právo. Zvláštní část. 3rd Ed., Praha: Leges, 2022.
  • Hendrych, Dušan (et al.), Správní právo. Obecná část. 9th Ed., Praha: C.H. Beck, 2016.
  • Kopecký, Martin. Správní parvo – obecná část. 3rd Ed., Praha: C. H. Beck, 2023.

Administrative Procedure

  • Historický vývoj úpravy správního řízení a dalších postupů ve veřejné správě. Periplum: Olomouc, 2007.
  • Skulová, Soňa (et al.), Správní právo procesní. 4th Ed., Plzeň: Vydavatelství a nakladatelství Aleš Čeněk, 2020.
  • Frumarová, Kateřina, Grygar, Tomáš, Pouperová, Olga, Škurek, Martin, Správní parvo procesní, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2021.

Criminal Law

  • Kratochvíl, Vladimír (et al.), Trestní právo hmotné: Obecná část. 2nd Ed., Praha: C.H. Beck, 2012.
  • Šámal, Pavel (et al.), Trestní zákoník: komentář, 3rd Ed., Praha: C.H. Beck, 2023.
  • Draštík, Antonín, Fremr, Robert, Durdík, Tomáš, Růžička, Miroslav, Sotolář, Alexander (et al.), Trestní zákoník: komentář, Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2015.
  • Šámal, Pavel (et al.), Trestní právo hmotné, 9th Ed., Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2022.

Criminal Procedure

  • Šámal, Pavel, Musil, Jan, Kuchta, Josef (et al.), Trestní právo procesní. 4th Ed., Praha: 2013.
  • Císařová, Dagmar, Fenyk, Jaroslav, Gřivna, Tomáš, Trestní právo procesní. 6th Ed. Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2015.
  • Draštík, Antonín, Fenyk, Jaroslav (et al.), Trestní řád: komentář, Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2017.
  • Fenyk, Jaroslav, Císařová, Dagmar, Gřivna, Tomáš (et al.), Trestní právo procesní, 8th Ed., Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2024.

Civil Law:

  • Bělohlávek, Alexander (et al.), Nový občanský zákoník (srovnání dosavadní a nové úpravy), Plzeň: Vydavatelství a nakladatelství Aleš Čeněk, 2012.
  • Eliáš, Karel (et al.), Nový občanský zákoník s aktualizovanou důvodovou zprávou, Ostrava: Sagit, 2012.
  • Lavický, Petr (et al.), Občanský zákoník I., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2014.
  • Hrušáková, Milana, Králíčková, Zdeňka, Westphalová, Lenka (et al.), Občanský zákoník II., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2014.
  • Spáčil, Jiří (et al.), Občanský zákoník III., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2013.
  • Fiala, Roman, Drápal, Ljubomír (et al.), Občanský zákoník IV., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2015.
  • Hulmák, Milan (et al.), Občanský zákoník V., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2014.
  • Hulmák, Milan (et al.), Občanský zákoník VI., komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2014.

Civil Procedure:

  • Hora, Václav, Československé civilní právo procesní: se stálým zřetelem ke Slovensku a Podkarpatské Rusi. Praha: V. Hora, 1932.
  • Drápal, Ljubomír, Bureš, Jaroslav (et al.), Občanský soudní řád: komentář. Volumes I – II, Praha: C.H. Beck, 2009.
  • Winterová, Alena, Macková, Alena (et al.), Civilní právo procesní. Část první: řízení nalézací. Praha: Leges, 2015.
  • Winterová, Alena, Macková, Alena (et al.), Civilní právo procesní. Část druhá: řízení vykonávací, řízení insolvenční. Praha: Leges, 2015.
  • Svoboda, Karel, Smolík, Petr, Levý, Jiří, Šínová, Renáta (et al.), Občanský soudní řád: komentář, Praha: C. H. Beck, 2017.

Commercial Law:

  • Pelikánová, Irena (et al.), Obchodní právo. Volumes I – V, Praha: Wolters Kluwer, 2006-2012.
  • Štenglová, Ivana, Plíva, Stanislav, Tomsa, Miloš (et al.), Obchodní zákoník: komentář. 13th Ed., Praha: C. H. Beck, 2010.
  • Havel, Bohumil (et al.), Zákon o obchodních korporacích s aktualizovanou důvodovou zprávou. Ostrava: Sagit, 2012.
  • Štenglová, Ivana, Havel, Bohumil, Cileček, Filip, Kuhn, Petr, Šuk, Petr, Zákon o obchodních korporacích. Komentář, 2nd Ed., Praha: C. H., Beck, 2017.

5.9. Dictionaries

Czech Searching Engines:

Newspapers:

Radios (Online):

  • The Czech Radio (public service broadcaster, channels – Radiožurnál, Praha, Vltava)

TV: