The Council of Europe

Sophie Lobey holds a Master of International Trade and Finance (Paris, 1992) from Institut Supérieur de Gestion (Advanced Institute of Management). She has been responsible for the Council of Europe Public Relations and Publications Section since 2003.

1. Who Are We?

Our Mission: The Council of Europe is the continent’s leading human rights organization. It brings together 46 European states,[1] including all the members of the European Union, representing 700 million citizens. Its mission is to promote democracy and protect human rights and the rule of law in Europe.

Our History: After the Second World War, some European countries came together to set up a political institution to protect peace and democracy in Europe. Ten countries signed the founding treaty of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 in London (Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom).

Thereafter many other countries went on to join the Council of Europe, which had 23 member states by 1989. In November 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall marked a turning point in the construction of Europe. This historic event allowed the Council of Europe to open its doors to new countries. “Greater Europe” was born.

Geography: Strasbourg, a city symbolizing peace and reconciliation, became the headquarters of the Council of Europe.[2] It is a complex of several buildings where more than 2300 people work.[3] Montenegro became the 47th member state of the Council of Europe on 11 May 2007. As of 16 March 2022, Russia ceased to be a member of the Council of Europe, which now has 46 member states. The Council of Europe observer States include Canada, the Holy See, Japan, Mexico, and the United States of America.

Symbols include the European Flag and the European Anthem.

The European Flag: The European flag, with its circle of 12 gold stars on a bright blue background, is one of the most famous in the world. It was introduced by the Council of Europe in 1955 and adopted by the European Union in 1985.[4] There were over 100 project submitted for the European flag. The number 12 is a symbolic number that represents perfection. It is associated with the 12 months of the year and the 12 hours of daytime and 12 hours of night-time. The number of stars never changes and has nothing to do with the number of member states.

The European Anthem: The Anthem of Europe is based on the prelude to the Ode to Joy from Beethoven’s 9th Symphony.[5] The Council of Europe adopted it as its official anthem in 1972. Since then, it has been played as the European anthem at all major official international gatherings.

2. Bodies

2.1. Committee of Ministers

The Committee of Ministers represents the governments of the member states.[6] It is the Council of Europe’s decision-making body and adopts the Organization’s program of activities and budget. It oversees members states’ execution of the judgments handed down by the European Court of Human Rights.

It is made up of the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of the 46 member states of the Council of Europe or their Permanent Representatives, who are ambassadors based in Strasbourg. Its meetings are held in Strasbourg, in the Committee of Ministers meeting room in the Palais de l’Europe.

The decisions of the Committee of Ministers are enshrined in European conventions and agreements. These decisions are forwarded to governments in the form of recommendations, which are legally binding on states that ratify them. The Committee of Ministers also adopts declarations or resolutions on current political issues. These texts are not binding, but member states are encouraged to use them as a basis for their domestic policies.

The representatives of the 46 countries are seated in alphabetical order according to the English names of the countries. They give their speeches in English and French, the two official languages of the Council of Europe. An example of an issue currently being discussed by the Committee of Ministers: With artificial intelligence (AI) and the increasing use of algorithms come risks of violations of fundamental rights such as the right to privacy and data protection. Therefore, the Committee of Ministers has set up a special committee to establish a common legal framework for AI.

2.2. Parliamentary Assembly

The Parliamentary Assembly is the Council of Europe’s deliberative body.[7] It meets four times a year in Strasbourg, in the Palais de l’Europe’s Assembly Chamber and brings together 306 members from the parliaments of the Council of Europe’s 46 member states. The number of parliamentarians per country is based directly on population size and ranges from two to 18.

During debates, parliamentarians use the Organization’s two official languages: English and French. They may also use two other working languages: German and Italian. Interpretation into and out of other languages may be provided at the request of delegations. Speaking time is limited to three minutes to allow as many parliamentarians as possible to take part in the debates. These discussions enable the Parliamentary Assembly to inspire positive change.

For example, from 1989 onwards, it helped ex-Communist countries move towards democracy. It also paved the way for the abolition of the death penalty in Europe in 1997. The Parliamentary Assembly investigates human rights violations and monitors elections. It is a forum for debating societal issues such as euthanasia and LGBTI rights. It plays a leading role in establishing gender equality, including within its own ranks. Parliamentarians are not seated by nationality or political group, but simply alphabetically by surname. This is because they meet to debate Europe’s interests and not their own political or national interests.

2.3. Congress of Local and Regional Authorities

Local democracy is a way of making decisions about public affairs locally rather than nationally, bringing the process as close as possible to the citizens.[8] For example, locally elected officials are closer to the people they represent, whether in big cities or small villages, municipal districts, or wider regions. The Congress meets twice a year in Strasbourg and represents 130,000 local and regional authorities (municipalities, regions, and towns). It has 612 members, all locally elected representatives, appointed for five years.

The Congress sees to it that the European Charter of Local Self-Government is properly implemented in the member states. All 46 Council of Europe member states have ratified this convention. It sets standards for protecting the rights of local authorities. The Congress invites young people from diverse backgrounds to take part in its sessions, have their say in the debates and talk to Congress members about issues such as the minimum voting age, urban planning, education, and integration. Between sessions, youth delegates are required to develop their own projects at local and regional level.

The Congress provides an opportunity to exchange ideas on a wide range of issues such as cross-border co-operation, receiving and integrating migrants, Roma, and Travellers, and managing health crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2015, the Congress set up the Alliance of European Cities against Violent Extremism. It provides a forum for local authorities to share their experience in this field and offers training programs.

2.4. Secretary General

The Secretary General is elected by the Parliamentary Assembly for a five-year term at the head of the Organization.[9] He/She is responsible of the strategic planning and the budget and is also the Council of Europe’s external representative, manages the Secretariat composed of about 2300 staff members from the member states. Marija Pejčinović Burić is the 14th Secretary General of the Council of Europe. She was elected in June 2019.

2.5. Commissioner for Human Rights

The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent and non-judicial institution to promote awareness of and respect for human rights.[10] It conducts active dialogue with member states on a wide range of pressing issues. Dunja Mijatović was elected Commissioner for Human Rights in January 2018.

2.6. The Conference of International Non-Governmental Organizations

The Conference of International Non-Governmental Organizations provides a vital link between politicians and ordinary citizens and gives civil society a voice at the Council of Europe.[11]

3. Let’s Talk About Human Rights

Human rights are basic human needs. They are founded on the principles of equality, respect, freedom, and justice. They are the ground rules for living in dignity. Children have rights, just like adults. Everyone must also respect the rights of others.[12]

3.1. European Convention on Human Rights

The European Convention on Human Rights is a treaty that was adopted in 1950.[13] The convention guarantees fundamental civil and political rights. The text of the Convention is not set in stone: it evolves along with changes in our society. The original 1950 text has been amended and added to by 15 protocols. Some issues that are not covered by the Convention – such as the right to a healthy environment – have also emerged in the European Court of Human Rights cases in recent years.

In 1959, a special court was set up to ensure that all the countries that signed the Convention obey the rules. It is called the European Court of Human Rights.

The Convention safeguards in particular:

• Right to life and security
• Freedom of expression and of assembly
• Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion
• Right to respect for private and family life
• Right to a fair trial
• Rights to vote and to stand for election

The Convention prohibits in particular:

• Torture
• Forced labor and slavery
• The death penalty
• Discrimination
• Arbitrary or unlawful detention

3.2. European Court of Human Rights

The European Court of Human Rights is an international court created in 1959.[14] If you think that your rights under the Convention have been violated in a Council of Europe member state, you may take your case to the Court. Your application can be submitted in any of the languages of the 46 member countries of the Organization.

For a complaint to be considered, you must first have tried to get justice in your own country by all legal means. The European Court of Human Rights is a unique tool. Accessible to all, it has the power to sentence governments. The Court has one judge for each member state, so 46 judges in total. They are independent and do not represent their country. The judges are elected for a nine-year term. The European Court of Human Rights can meet as a plenary court (with all 46 judges) and its cases can be judged by a chamber of seven judges or by the Grand Chamber, with seventeen judges.

The Court may receive applications from:

• A state
• An individual person
• A non-governmental organization
• A group of people

Judgments and Decisions: A decision is usually given by a single judge, a committee, or a chamber of the Court. Judgments for violations are binding on states. The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe ensures that they are executed, including the payment of money awarded by the Court to applicants as compensation for the damage suffered. It also asks countries to take measures to prevent a recurrence of the same situation, for example by changing laws.

Most cases deal with:

• The length of legal proceedings
• The right to a fair trial
• The right to the protection of property
• The right to life

4. Achievements/Conventions

4.1. Protection of Children

The Council of Europe put an end to corporal punishment in schools following a complaint to the European Court of Human Rights. See: Teachers stop hitting children after Scottish mums complain to Strasbourg – Impact of the European Convention on Human Rights (coe.int).

European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights: This convention aims to protect the best interests of children and provides several procedural measures to allow the children to exercise their rights. Among the types of family proceedings of special interest for children are those concerning custody, residence, access, questions of parentage, legitimacy, adoption, legal guardianship, administration of property of children, care procedures, removal or restriction of parental responsibilities, protection from cruel or degrading treatment and medical treatment.

Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (Lanzarote Convention, 2007): It was the first instrument to criminalize the several types of sexual abuse of children, including abuse committed at home or in the family. The objective of this convention is to prevent sexual offences while protecting victims and ensuring that perpetrators are prosecuted. This includes the screening, recruitment and training of people who work with children while making children aware of the risks and teaching them to protect themselves, as well as monitoring measures for offenders and potential offenders. The convention has been adopted by all 46 Council of Europe countries as well as Tunisia. This convention punishes by law all types of sexual offences.

The Council of Europe published an Internet Literacy Handbook to warn children of the dangers of using online networks.

4.2. Education – Languages

The Council of Europe encourages the recognition of qualifications and periods of study to facilitate the pursuit of higher education and employment in many countries in Europe and elsewhere (Bologna Process).

In the interests of integration, the Council of Europe has created the European Qualifications Passport for Refugees, facilitating the recognition of refugees’ qualifications, even in cases where they do not have full documentation.

In 2020 the Council of Europe established an Observatory on History Teaching in Europe. Its main objective is to collect and make available, through regular and thematic reports, factual information on the ways in which history is taught in all participating countries, thus facilitating the exchange of good practice and mutual learning.

The European Day of Languages (September 26) is celebrated in many European countries and around the world. This Council of Europe initiative raises awareness of linguistic diversity among millions of people each year and encourages language learning.

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is used in the 46 Council of Europe member states and in many other countries around the world. It serves as a basis for modern language programs, examinations and coursebooks. It has become a common currency for students and employers, helping to define language proficiency levels.

The Council of Europe’s European Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, Austria, offers a wide range of teacher training programs. These innovative programs seek to make language learning effective. They respond to today’s challenges linked to linguistic and cultural diversity, migration, and mobility.

4.3. Culture

The European Cultural Convention: Because culture plays a key part in understanding other people and respecting diversity, the Council of Europe adopted the European Cultural convention in 1954, which provides the basis for Europe-wide co-operation in the fields of culture, education, youth sport, languages, and the transmission of common values.

Some 140 cities around the world participate in the Council of Europe’s Intercultural Cities program. Globalization, mobility, and migration are increasing cultural diversity in cities. This is an asset, but it also requires measures to promote integration. For example, the city of Barcelona, Spain, has introduced a program promoting schooling among the Roma community; the city of Bergen, Norway, is encouraging sports clubs to include people with an immigrant background; and the city of Auckland, New Zealand, has decided to provide more training for its municipal staff to improve their ability to communicate with the Māori population.

In 1987, the Council of Europe launched the Cultural Routes program. This label is awarded to cultural routes promoting history, heritage, and shared memory in Europe. Today, more than 45 certified Cultural Routes cross some 50 countries. They cover a wide range of themes, including architecture (Art Nouveau Network), religious influences (Santiago de Compostela Pilgrim Routes), gastronomy and landscape (Olive Tree Routes) and great European figures (European Mozart Ways and In the Footsteps of Robert Louis Stevenson).

With the Eurimages European film support fund, the Council of Europe encourages film producers from different countries to make films together. This financial support has so far contributed to the production of around 2,000 feature films, animations, and documentary films. Some of these films have won prestigious awards such as the best foreign language film at the Golden Globes and the Oscars, and the Palme d’Or at the Cannes Film Festival.

The European Heritage Days are a leading cultural event for European citizens. This Council of Europe and European Union initiative raises awareness of Europe’s cultural wealth and diversity. Each year, 30 million people visit more than 50,000 participating sites and monuments.

The Bern Convention is a binding international treaty that protects endangered wildlife. It applies on the European continent and in some African states, with a total of 51 countries having signed up so far. For example, it helps to protect large carnivores such as lynxes, bears and wolves and conserve plants such as certain species of orchids, tulips, and thyme. It has also supported efforts to rescue marine turtle nests in Greece, Türkiye, and Cyprus.

The European Audiuovisual Observatory collects and disseminates statistical and legal or analytical data on cinema, radio, television, and audio-visual services in Europe.

4.4. Health

The European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and Healthcare (EDQM) of the Council of Europe assists its 39 member countries and the European Union in public health matters. It sets quality control standards for medicines and their components, blood transfusions and organ transplantations. It is also responsible for combating the counterfeiting of medical products.

The European Pharmacopoeia is a single reference work for the quality control of medicines. This publication provides standards for all professionals involved in the manufacture and control of medicines.

For example, paracetamol, whether it is made in France, Austria or Iceland and sold under a brand name or as a generic, must comply with the same European regulations.

The European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (Oviedo Convention 1997): This convention sets standards for ethical practices in biomedicine including organ transplantation, medical research on human beings, the protection of embryos and the use of medical records. It is designed to preserve human dignity, rights, and freedoms by countering the misuse of biological and medical advances. The convention addresses ethical issues, such as employers or insurers requesting a genetic test, and the sale of human organs (for example, kidneys, sperm, and eggs). Since 1998, an additional protocol to the convention prohibits human cloning.

Council of Europe Convention against Trafficking in Human Organs (2015): The Convention calls on governments to establish as a criminal offence the illegal removal of human organs from living or deceased donors where the removal is performed without the free, informed and specific consent of the living or deceased donor, or, in the case of the deceased donor, without the removal being authorized under its domestic law; where, in exchange for the removal of organs, the living donor, or a third party, receives a financial gain or comparable advantage; where in exchange for the removal of organs from a deceased donor, a third party receives a financial gain or comparable advantage. The Convention also provides protection measures and compensation for victims as well as prevention measures to ensure transparency and equitable access to transplantation services.

The Anti-Doping Convention: The objective of this convention is to standardize anti-doping regulations throughout all member states, ensuring they adopt legislative, financial, scientific, and educational measures to efficiently fight doping in sport. It aims to give a common framework to each country’s specific policy in which athletes are subject to the same procedures, regardless of which country they are representing.

Medicrime Convention (2011): Thanks to the “Medicrime” convention (Convention on the counterfeiting of medical products and similar crimes involving threats to public health), which is open to non-European states, it is now possible to punish as criminal offences, on the grounds of damage to public health, the distribution and sale, including via the internet, of counterfeit medical products.

It criminalizes the counterfeiting, manufacture and distribution of medical products marketed without authorization. Established in 2011, it currently applies in 14 Council of Europe countries, Belarus and three African countries. The convention, together with the Committee of the Parties, lays down a framework for national and international co-operation between the competent health, police, and customs authorities. By setting international standards, it encourages countries to take measures to prevent crime, effectively prosecute offenders and protect victims and witnesses.

For example, the UK authorities were able to ban the sale of a counterfeit cholesterol treatment which posed a risk of serious side effects. In France, counterfeit contact lenses were withdrawn from the market because they were contaminated by bacteria harmful to the cornea.

4.5. Sport

The Council of Europe has drawn up four sports conventions regarding the following themes:

• The fight against doping
• Spectator violence and misbehavior in particular at football matches
• The manipulation of sports competitions
• Safety and security at sporting events.

The Council of Europe works closely with leading bodies such as the World Anti-Doping Agency and Interpol, as well as sports organizations such as the IOC, UEFA, and FIFA. The Council of Europe has also launched awareness-raising campaigns: one to promote gender equality in sport and another to prevent and combat sexual abuse in sport.

European Convention on Spectator Violence and Misbehavior at Sports Events and in particular at Football Matches: This convention aims to foster co-operation between member states, public authorities and independent sports organizations to prevent violence and misbehavior by spectators at sports events. It sets out several measures, including close co-operation between police forces; prosecution of offenders; strict control of ticket sales and appropriate design of stadia to prevent violence and allow effective crowd control and safety.

Council of Europe convention on the Manipulation of Sports Competitions: The purpose of this Convention is to prevent, punish and discipline the manipulation of sports competitions, as well as enhance the exchange of information in national and international cooperation between the public authorities concerned, and with sports organizations and sports betting operators.

4.6. Discrimination

In 1994, the Council of Europe set up the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI). This body monitors problems of racism, discrimination on grounds of ethnic origin, citizenship, color, religion, and language, as well as xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and intolerance, prepares reports and issues recommendations to member states.

For example, ECRI has warned Council of Europe member states about racial profiling in the police force and difficulties in access to education, employment, and housing for certain minority groups. Following ECRI’s recommendations on combating hate speech, Germany and Austria adopted a law obliging major social network operators to remove clear instances of hate speech from their platforms.

To ensure respect for the equal rights and dignity of LGBTI people, the SOGI platform has been set up. Policy makers, lawmakers and NGOs use this platform to report on their legal and policy developments at national level.

4.7. New Technologies

In 1981, the Council of Europe adopted the Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, known as Convention 108. It was the first binding legal instrument in the field of data protection and 55 states are now parties to the convention. It helps to respond to new challenges in the digital era and allow safer exchanges of personal data. It supports countries in developing new standards and policies, for example to secure data related to health and employment and protect individuals in the context of profiling. Updated in 2018, this reference text is now called Convention 108+. Today, the convention also covers genetic and biometric data as well as data relating to ethnic origin and trade union membership.

The COVID-19 pandemic forced governments to adopt urgent and effective measures to protect people. Widespread use of new digital technologies quickly became a threat to data protection and the right to privacy. Although public health is a top priority, Convention 108 has served as a reference to limit abuses and highlight the need for a legal framework for implementing certain measures. For example, France and Greece have renounced the use of drones to monitor the movement of individuals. In Denmark, an executive order – until its scope was narrowed – gave the police and the patent protection authorities extensive access to personal data, including bank transfers and communication data.

In 2001, the Council of Europe adopted the Convention on Cybercrime, known as the Budapest Convention, which has been ratified by 65 countries so far. It helps to tackle cyberattacks (malware infections), phishing (identity theft) and spam (sending messages with illegal content such as offering to supply counterfeit medicines). It also addresses electoral interference through malicious cyber activities that undermine free elections and public trust in election campaigns. In 2003, the convention was supplemented by a protocol covering the criminalization of acts of a racist and xenophobic nature committed through computer systems. It is the first international treaty dealing with computer and internet crimes such as child pornography, copyright infringement and hate speech. It serves to harmonize national laws and improve investigative techniques.

In 2019, the Committee of Ministers set up the Ad hoc Committee on Artificial Intelligence (CAHAI). It is seeking to put in place a legal framework for the development, design, and application of artificial intelligence. It organizes Europe-wide and international webinars to gauge the impact of digital issues, particularly in the field of law. Topics for debate include intellectual property law and privacy issues and the consequences of the increasing use of algorithms in public policy. The Council of Europe has also adopted the first European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Judicial Systems and their environment.

4.8. Gender Equality – Women’s Rights

The Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention), adopted in 2011, has been ratified by 37 member states. The first legally binding instrument at European level, the Istanbul Convention provides a comprehensive legal framework for preventing violence against women, including domestic and family violence, protecting victims, and ending impunity for perpetrators.

This establishes guidelines to eliminate such acts and bring perpetrators to justice. It aims to protect women from violence and seeks to change attitudes to work towards gender equality. It is not only women who suffer domestic violence, but parties to the convention are also encouraged to apply the protective framework to men, children and the elderly who are exposed to violence within the family or domestic unit. However, it should not be overlooked that most victims of domestic violence are women and that it is part of a wider pattern of discrimination and inequality.

An independent body, GREVIO (Group of Experts on Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence) is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Istanbul Convention by the parties.

The Committee of Ministers set up the Gender Equality Commission. This commission enhances gender mainstreaming in all Council of Europe policies. At the international level, it encourages countries to pass legislation condemning sexism and making sexist hate speech a criminal offence. For example, Armenia has received support for amending its national law on domestic violence and an awareness-raising campaign was organized to help the authorities in their efforts to ratify the Istanbul Convention. A European awareness-raising campaign, called “Sexism: See it, Name it, Stop it,” was launched in 2020, in 25 languages. It aims to help the public spot acts of sexism, take a stand against such behavior, and stop it. It deals with fields such as the internet and social networks, the media and advertising. It offers practical advice for tackling sexism in the workplace, the public sector, the justice system, education, and the private sphere.

The Parliamentary Assembly has also taken a firm political stance against all forms of violence against women. It created the Equality Prize, which is awarded to political parties for respecting gender equality in politics. In 2018, the Assembly launched a new initiative, #NotInMyParliament, where parliamentarians commit to acting against sexism, harassment, and violence against women in their national parliaments. “Equality of the sexes is part of the equality of mankind.” V. Hugo.

4.9. Youth

The Council of Europe founded two European Youth Centers (EYCs): in Strasbourg, in 1972, and in Budapest, in 1995. They are training and meeting centers, with residential facilities. In co-operation with non-governmental youth organizations, the EYCs organize 40 to 50 activities per year (12800 young people per year). These are open to groups from political, socio-educational, and religious movements, or from young workers’ organizations.

The European Youth Foundation (EYF), established in 1972, provides financial and educational support for European youth activities. More than 300,000 young people aged between 15 and 30 have benefited directly from EYF-supported activities. For example, the EYF supported the Association for Youth Solidarity in Arenas de San Pedro, a multicultural town in Spain, where inhabitants with migrant backgrounds face barriers to integration and suffer from many forms of prejudice. This project enabled 23 young people to participate in a six-month program of workshops on the benefits of a multicultural society and in a festival fostering intercultural exchange. The EYF also supported the Youth Express Network’s Shake the Box initiative to promote young people from vulnerable groups and their participation in European society. Young people from 16 different countries took part in activities in several countries to support causes such as environmental protection, social inclusion of migrants and the rights of the LGBTI community.

4.10. Human Rights

The Council of Europe set up a program on Human Rights Education for Legal Professionals (HELP Program). Its aim is to improve the implementation of the European Convention on Human Rights in the member states. The program offers online courses to improve human rights knowledge among current members of the legal profession, and those of the future, namely law students. The courses have been translated into many languages and adapted to national legal systems. So far, nearly 80,000 people have taken part in the scheme.

The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment establishes standards regarding the rights of citizens who have been imprisoned and ensures member states’ compliance. Its aim is to guarantee that the treatment of detainees and prison conditions are consistent with human dignity.

The Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) aims to protect people deprived of their liberty from torture and any other ill-treatment. For this purpose, CPT experts have unlimited access to all places of detention such as prisons, juvenile detention centers, police stations and psychiatric hospitals. The information gathered, mainly from those detained, is then compiled in a report. This report serves as a basis for discussion with the relevant countries to address the problems identified. For example, Romania, Ukraine, and France were persuaded to tackle the problem of prison overcrowding. And during a follow-up visit to Bulgaria in 2017, the CPT noted an improvement in the situation in prisons, where renovation work had led to better conditions for prisoners.

Freedom of the press, enshrined in Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, is a fundamental right. In 2015, the Council of Europe set up a whistleblowing Platform to promote the protection of journalism and safety of journalists. In association with partners such as the European Federation of Journalists and Reporters Without Borders, the platform can be used to report any form of threats or intimidation against journalists. Member states are then asked to remedy these shortcomings by conducting investigations and implementing a legal reform program. For example, the Council of Europe called for an independent public enquiry into the circumstances of the assassination of journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia in October 2017 in Malta. After months of negotiations, this was finally achieved in November 2019.

The office of the Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent, non-judicial institution established in 1999 to promote awareness of and respect for human rights in the member states. Country visits and dialogue with national authorities and civil society are held with this aim. The commissioner also makes on-site visits to places where human rights are liable to be an issue (such as prisons, orphanages, and asylum centers). During his/her visits to member countries, exchanges with national authorities and civil society are organized, and an evaluation and recommendations are proposed.

For example, in January 2019, during the Yellow Vest movement in France, Commissioner Dunja Mijatović stressed the importance of respecting human rights in relation to law enforcement and ensuring that freedom of assembly was not impeded. The commissioner also conducts awareness-raising and prevention work in different areas such as the protection of the rights of refugees and migrants in the Mediterranean region and discrimination related to algorithms.

4.11. Social Rights

The European Social Charter safeguards fundamental social and economic rights. The Charter deals with employment issues such as the right to strike and the freedom to join a trade union, the prohibition of forced labor, the prohibition of work by children under 15 years of age and protection in the event of dismissal. It also addresses housing issues, such as procedures to limit evictions and equal access for foreigners to social housing and housing benefits. On health, it covers accessible and effective healthcare facilities for the entire population and risk reduction in the workplace.

On education, it advocates free primary and secondary education and access to education for people with disabilities. In addition, the Charter also addresses social protection issues such as the treatment of juvenile offenders, the legal status of the child and the prohibition of all forms of sexual and other exploitation.

Compliance with the Charter is monitored by the European Committee of Social Rights in two ways. First, the committee publishes national periodical reports on the monitoring of the Charter in law and in practice. Second, it examines collective complaints from trade unions, employers’ organizations and NGOs which may report cases of violation of the Charter in a country. If the committee finds a violation, it then asks states to take measures to remedy the situation. For example, Estonia, France, Ireland, and Malta have abolished all forms of corporal punishment. The Netherlands has introduced new measures to ensure destitute irregular migrants have access to emergency assistance and Belgium has set up separate shelters for minors in reception centers. France has adopted several measures to close the gender pay gap and ensure women are fairly represented in companies’ decision-making bodies.

The Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB) was set up in 1956 to help finance social projects. It aids in emergency situations, such as natural disasters, and contributes to improving the living conditions of the most disadvantaged population groups. For example, the CEB granted a 100-million-euro loan to Albania to support reconstruction after the earthquake that hit the country in November 2019. In August 2020, the CEB also helped Finland to support the construction of student accommodation in the city of Tampere. Since the onset of the COVID-19 health crisis, the CEB has approved loans totaling three billion euros to help many European countries deal with the pandemic and its consequences. This includes support for health systems, including in Greece and Lithuania. In Spain, it has also provided support to small businesses and the self-employed.

4.12. Rule of Law

Protecting and promoting the rule of law is one of the cornerstones of the Council of Europe, which works to ensure justice and develop common standards in the field. It actively encourages member states to implement these standards in their national law-enforcement bodies. The Council of Europe’s main mechanisms to ensure respect for the rule of law are:

The Consultative Council of European Judges is an advisory body of the Council of Europe on issues related to the independence, impartiality, and competence of judges. It is the first body within an international organization to be composed exclusively of judges. The Consultative Council of European Prosecutors.

The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice: The work of the CEPEJ is focused on developing management tools, best practice, and guidelines for improving the quality and efficiency of justice. It regularly publishes a report on the evaluation of European judicial systems. For example, it has set up a system for analyzing the length of proceedings. More than 20% of the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights concern excessive length of proceedings. To tackle this, CEPEJ established the SATURN working group which proposes guidelines to help courts in Europe better manage their working time. For example, the Rovaniemi Court of Appeal in Finland has committed to processing all its cases in less than a year. CEPEJ also adopted the first European Ethical Charter on the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Judicial Systems.

The European Commission for Democracy through Law – also known as the Venice Commission – is an advisory body on constitutional matters. It provides legal advice to its 61 member states (the 46 member states of the Council of Europe and fifteen other countries). The Commission works in three areas: democratic institutions and fundamental rights, constitutional justice and ordinary justice, and finally elections, referendums and political parties.

It also helps to ensure the dissemination and consolidation of a common constitutional heritage, playing a unique role in conflict management, and provides “emergency constitutional aid” to states in transition. It is composed of constitutional and international law experts and is recognized as an international independent legal think-tank. USA has observer status in this commission. For example, it played a key role in drafting the constitutions of the newly emerging democracies in eastern Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and in those of Morocco and Tunisia after the Arab Spring.

4.13. Democratic Governance

European Charter of Local Self-Government: this charter provides the constitutional basis for local self –government in the forty-six member states which have ratified it. It guarantees the political administrative and financial independence of local authorities. The Council of Europe has developed an electoral assistance system for member countries. This program applies the principles of the Venice Commission’s Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters, created in 2002 and it establishes training centers in some countries to train election officials in the tools of electoral procedures in line with international standards.

For example, the Council of Europe has set up training centers, notably in the Republic of Moldova, Georgia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. These centers provide training for election officials on how to conduct elections in accordance with international standards. The program also targets bodies responsible for monitoring campaign and political party funding, such as the Court of Accounts in Georgia, or those responsible for election campaign coverage in the media, such as the Audiovisual Co-ordinating Council in the Republic of Moldova.

Special training is also given to NGOs involved in observing elections. International election observation missions of the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe. For example, over 5,000 Ukrainian observers were trained for the 2019 presidential election in Ukraine. Training local observers helps support the international election observation missions conducted by the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe is also the only organization to have set intergovernmental e-voting standards in Europe.

The electoral assistance program is particularly supportive in terms of encouraging women, first-time voters and those belonging to national minorities to vote and stand in elections. For example, youth outreach campaigns were run in Albania to raise awareness of the role elections play in democratic societies and why voting is important.

4.14. Minority Rights

Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: This guarantees protection for national minorities in all member states and establishes guidelines for the freedom of expression, assembly, conscience, and religion. It ensures that all citizens belonging to national minorities can enjoy fair access to media, language and education while seeking to promote the full and effective equality of national minorities and enabling them to preserve and develop their culture and to retain their identity.

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: This convention aims to protect and promote regional and minority languages as a threatened aspect of Europe’s cultural heritage and on the other hand to enable speakers of these languages to use them in private and public life.

4.15. Crime

The European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism: The Council of Europe has adopted this Convention to increase the effectiveness of existing international texts on the fight against terrorism. It aims to strengthen member States’ efforts to prevent terrorism in two different ways: by establishing as criminal offences certain acts that may lead to the commission of terrorist offences, namely: public provocation, recruitment, and training by reinforcing co-operation on prevention both internally (national prevention policies), and internationally (modification of existing extradition and mutual assistance arrangements and additional means). The Convention contains a provision on the protection and compensation of victims of terrorism. An additional protocol to the European Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism was adopted in 2015 to address the problem of “foreign terrorist fighters”.

The Convention on Cybercrime: The purpose of this convention is to issue guidelines to develop national legislative frameworks to fight cybercrime, especially dealing with infringements of copyright, computer-related fraud, child pornography and violations of network security. It also acts as a platform for communication and co-operation between signatory countries. This convention has also been signed by Canada, and signed and ratified by USA, Japan, and Australia.

4.16. Environment

The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats: The purpose of this convention is to monitor, and control endangered and vulnerable plant and animal species while protecting their natural habitats. It gives advice on scientific and legal issues and encourages and co-ordinates further research in this area.

European Landscape Convention: This convention promotes the protection, management and planning of European landscapes and organizes European co-operation on landscape issues. The Council of Europe supports the continent’s natural landscape as an integral part of our shared heritage, be it ordinary or outstanding, urban, or rural, on land or in water.

4.17. Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms

Every country which joins the Council of Europe agrees to be subject to independent monitoring mechanisms which assess its compliance with human rights and democratic practices. In some cases, such mechanisms have been set up under a treaty. To fight corruption, the Council of Europe set up GRECO – the Group of States against Corruption – in 1999. Greco identifies deficiencies in national anti-corruption policies and encourages states to conduct the necessary legislative, institutional or administrative reforms. Its evaluation is based on the relevant Council of Europe conventions.

Corruption undermines good governance, fairness, and social justice, distorts competition, and hinders economic development. It endangers the stability of democratic institutions and erodes trust in public institutions. The 50 countries which have joined GRECO are subject to an evaluation process to ensure that they meet the Council of Europe’s anti-corruption standards. These evaluation rounds cover themes such as the independence of national bodies engaged in the fight against corruption, seizure of proceeds of crime, transparency of political party funding and corruption of the judiciary.

In 2018, GRECO recommended that Liechtenstein ensure greater transparency in political party and election campaign funding. In 2020, it concluded that this recommendation had been satisfactorily implemented. Similarly, in its 2020 report on France, GRECO noted some progress regarding parliamentarians, including the oversight of senators’ expenses, the system for dealing with conflicts of interest and the regulations on receiving gifts which apply to members of both houses of parliament.

MONEYVAL (The Committee of Experts on the Evaluation of Anti-Money Laundering Measures and the Financing of Terrorism): Set up in 1997, MONEYVAL is responsible for ensuring that member states establish effective systems for combating, money laundering and the financing of terrorism. USA has observer status on this committee. This Council of Europe body is responsible for both assessing compliance with international standards and making recommendations to national authorities to improve their respective systems in this field.

For example, MONEYVAL has urged the authorities of the Slovak Republic to systematically track down and seize illicit funds generated by crimes. MONEYVAL’s 2020 report on Lithuania found the country now has a significantly better understanding of the risks. Likewise, the Czech Republic has strengthened anti-money laundering measures, for example by increasing transparency in banking transactions.

Since the 1970s, the Council of Europe has been helping states to fight terrorism. Since 2005, the Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, ratified by 41 countries, has been the main legal instrument underpinning these efforts. The convention aims to improve national policies and strategies and facilitate international co-operation and mutual legal assistance in criminal matters. The Council of Europe’s action against terrorism is coordinated by an intergovernmental body, the Council of Europe Committee on Counter-Terrorism. Introduced in 2015, an additional protocol to the convention aims to tackle the phenomenon of foreign fighters suspected of travelling for the purposes of terrorism.

For example, the committee oversees a network to facilitate the exchange of police information. The Council of Europe also launched the #NoHateNoFear campaign against online hate speech conducive to terrorism and violent extremism.

The Pompidou Group or Co-operation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs is an intergovernmental body of the Council of Europe. Established in 1971, the group is made up of forty-one member states, but its activities also involve co-operation with other countries, including those in the Mediterranean region as well as Mexico. USA contributes on an ad hoc basis with this group. It provides a forum for policy makers, professionals, and researchers to share experiences and information on drug use and trafficking.

For example, it has set up a Co-operation Group for European airports to exchange information, leading to more successful seizures at international level. The Pompidou Group has also set up an International Academy which offers training programs in co-operation with leading universities.

The Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, adopted in 2005, has been ratified by 46 Council of Europe member states and Belarus. It aims to prevent trafficking in human beings, protect victims and bring traffickers to justice. It applies to all forms of exploitation, such as sexual exploitation, forced labor, slavery, and organ removal.

GRETA, the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, is the convention’s monitoring body. It issues reports and recommendations to governments to encourage states parties to improve their legislation and practices in this field.

For example, Bosnia and Herzegovina has amended its criminal law so that victims of trafficking are no longer punished for taking part in illegal activities when they have been forced to do so. In Croatia, measures were put in place to assist victims in court and avoid any contact with offenders. Also, training provided to Romania’s Border Police has helped border guards detect victims of human trafficking.

5. List of Partial Agreements, Enlarged Partial Agreements and Enlarged Agreements

Partial Agreements: A partial agreement allows certain Council of Europe member states to work together in pursuit of goals that might not necessarily be relevant or acceptable to all countries. Only those member states involved in the agreements contribute to their financing and development.

The partial agreements are important in establishing and maintaining close co-operation between member states on a range on specific issues. These partial agreements include the EDQM, which has been previously mentioned, as well as the European Card for Substantially Handicapped Persons. If you have a disability that leads to reduced mobility, you might be entitled to an EU disability parking card in your country of residence, which should be recognized in all EU countries. When travelling outside your home country, this EU parking card should give you access to several parking rights and facilities which are specific to the country you are visiting.

Enlarged Partial Agreements: The enlarged partial agreements include some member states and some non-member states. These enlarged partial agreements include the Pompidou group, the Observatory on History Teaching in Europe and the Council of Europe Development Bank, which have been previously mentioned, as well as:

• Co-operation Group for the Prevention of, Protection Against, and Organization of Relief in Major Natural and Technological Disasters: EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement is a platform for co-operation in the field of major natural and technological disasters. Its field of competence covers disaster risk reduction knowledge, prevention, preparedness, risk management and post-crisis analysis.
• European Support Fund for the Co-Production and Distribution of Creative Cinematographic and Audiovisual Works “Eurimages”: the first body of its kind in Europe, Eurimages finances the co-production, distribution, digitization, and exhibition of European cinematographic works, while at the same time encouraging co-operation between film professionals.
• European Centre for Global Interdependence and Solidarity (North-South Centre): set up in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1990, the North-South Centre promotes dialogue between North and South and the adoption of policies of solidarity in line with the objectives of the Council of Europe.
• Partial Agreement on Youth Mobility through the Youth Card: The Department elaborates guidelines, programs, and legal instruments for the development of coherent and effective youth policies at local, national, and European levels.
• European Audiovisual Observatory: The European Audiovisual Observatory was set up in Strasbourg in 1992 to reply to a distinct lack of information and transparency concerning this industry. To the present day, it continues to provide a comparative European overview of the audiovisual industry in forty different countries as well as detailed analysis of national and even regional industries.
• European Centre for Modern Languages (Graz, Austria): the center supports the development of language teaching and learning as a means of encouraging communication and co-operation.
• Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport (EPAS): The purpose of this partial agreement is to promote sport and to highlight the positive values it conveys. EPAS also works to establish international standards and develop a pan-European framework for co-operation.
• Enlarged Partial Agreement on Cultural Routes: The Cultural Routes program was launched by the Council of Europe in 1987. Its objective was to demonstrate, by means of a journey through space and time, how the heritage of the different countries and cultures of Europe contributes to a shared cultural heritage.

Enlarged Agreements: The enlarged partial agreements include all the member states as well as non-member states. They comprise the Venice Commission and the GRECO, which have previously been mentioned.

6. Campaigns and Projects

The Council of Europe undertakes a wide range of campaigns and projects to promote its fundamental principles of human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. These are a vital tool for raising awareness on key issues and fostering co-operation and communication within and between member states.

• European Day against the Death Penalty: This day celebrates the process of the abolition of the death penalty as reflected in Protocol Six to the European Convention on Human Rights. All the Council of Europe’s member states have abolished or introduced a moratorium against the death penalty, believing it has no place in a modern democratic society. The Parliamentary Assembly continues to monitor the situation, even in those countries with observer status, especially USA and Japan. Ahead of the World and European Day against the Death Penalty, the 46-nation Council of Europe and the 27-member European Union have issued a joint declaration underlining their firm opposition to capital punishment and calling on countries across Europe to move towards abolition.
• No Hate Speech Movement: This campaign is against the use of hate speech, racism, and discrimination online. It stands for equality, dignity, human rights, and diversity. The working methods are awareness raising, advocacy and creative solutions. It is a project for action and intervention which enables young people and youth organizations to recognize and act against such human rights violations. It is a project being run by the Council of Europe’s youth sectors since 2012. It aims to combat racisms and discrimination, as expressed online as hate speech, by mobilizing young people and youth organization to recognize and act against such human rights violations.
• Dosta!: Dosta, meaning “enough,” is the campaign aimed at fighting prejudice towards the Roma community. It is part of the Council of Europe’s work to protect national minorities, and its goal is to counter the negative image of Roma citizens which is all too often presented.
• The Council of Europe LGBT Project: The goal of this project is to contribute to the improvement of the quality of life among LGBT people in Europe by supporting member states in their efforts to develop a robust LGBT policy, strengthening human rights for LGBT people, and supporting the national fight against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
• Building a Europe for and with Children: This strategy focuses on several strategic objectives to promote child-friendly services and systems, eliminate all forms of violence against children, and guarantee the rights of children in vulnerable situations and to promote child participation.
• One in Five: One in Five is the Council of Europe campaign to stop sexual violence against children. Combating sexual violence against children through specific legal instruments and comprehensive awareness-raising actions are two of the strategic objectives of the program.

7. European Union and Council of Europe Cooperation

Do not get confused, the European Union and the Council of Europe are separate organizations which share the same fundamental values—human rights, democracy, and the rule of law—but have yet complementary roles.

• Council of Europe: an international organization in Strasbourg which comprises 46 countries of Europe. It was set up to promote democracy and protect human rights and the rule of law in Europe.
• European Union (EU): the EU currently has 27 members that have delegated some of their sovereignty so that decisions on specific matters of joint interest can be made democratically European level.
• The two organizations work closely together under The Lisbon Treaty, in areas of mutual interest, such as promoting human rights and democracy in Europe and neighboring regions. Some major programs and substantial financial resources have been deployed with a view to achieving the organizations’ common goal of peace.
• Negotiations for EU accession to the European Convention on Human Rights are underway as pledged in the Lisbon Treaty 2009. This represents a decisive step forward in co-operation and will strengthen the protection of human rights in Europe. It will allow citizens the same rights regarding the acts of the EU as they currently enjoy from individual member states. Accession of the EU to the European Convention on Human Rights has been an objective of the EU for many years, as well as a legal obligation under the Lisbon Treaty. Negotiations for the accession resumed in September 2020. The European Commission negotiates on behalf of the European Union with the current 46 Member States of the Council of Europe. Accession will make it possible for the EU to be held accountable for potential violations of human rights, alongside its Member States in situations where an EU Member State implements EU law. Individuals will be able to bring cases before the European Court of Human Rights against the EU.

It is a pivotal step in creating a pan-European legal space. Accession will mark an important milestone in the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms of individual citizens across Europe.

• Joint programs between the Council of Europe and the European Commission remain a unique tool to promote and protect human rights, democracy, and the rule of law in Europe. They are designed to facilitate and support legal and institutional reform. Over the years, Joint Programs have become one of the major instruments of co-operation. They are agreed between the Council of Europe and the EU’s European Commission, in consultation with the governments of the countries concerned.

The European Union is the main institutional partner of the Council of Europe and main contributor to its extraordinary budget.

7.1. Three Pillars of Cooperation

The three pillars of cooperation include political dialogue, legal cooperation, and programs.

Political Dialogue

• Coordinate general directions and objectives of cooperation
• Regular high-level contacts between EU and Council of Europe leaders
• Permanent diplomatic exchange through the EU Delegation in Strasbourg and the Council of Europe
• Liaison Office in Brussels

Legal Cooperation

• Enhance synergies between the two legal systems
• Rule of Law
• Artificial Intelligence
• Gender Equality
• Cybercrime
• Data Protection

Programs

• Conduct joint actions on the ground.
• Global budget of joint programs in 2021: €207.4 million
• The joint programs with the Council of Europe assist countries in the EU and in other regions of strategic importance with policy and legislative expertise, reform implementation and capacity-building. The aim of the technical cooperation is to bring beneficiaries closer to international and European standards on human rights, rule of law and democracy.

7.2. Cooperation Outside the EU

Partnership for Good Governance (Eastern partnership countries):

• supporting the independence of the judiciary and fighting economic crime
• Strengthening anti-discrimination
• Combating violence against women.

Horizontal Facility (Western Balkans and Türkiye):

• Supporting the EU enlargement process
• Assisting the justice reform
• Fighting economic crime
• Protecting persons in vulnerable situations
• strengthening freedom of expression and of the media

South Program (Southern Mediterranean Region):

• gradually creating a common legal space between Europe and the region
• fighting trafficking in human beings, protecting personal data and
• Combating economic crime

7.3. Cooperation Within the EU

Technical Support Instrument (TSI): Structural reform in the Member States on human rights, judicial, institutional, and administrative matters, digitalization, healthcare, or the financial sector:

• implementing the Barnahus model/Children’s House
• improving the juvenile justice system
• tackling money laundering and terrorism financing
• strengthening access to justice through mediation and legal aid
• implementing recommendations to enhance the capacity of justice systems.

Other joint programs underway in EU member States include action on anti-discrimination, human rights education for legal professionals (HELP), the fight against cybercrime, as well as culture, heritage, and youth.

8. Global Co-operation (Non-Member States)

The Council of Europe is constantly reaching out to non-member states, many of whom are parties to treaties or partial agreements, to widen its scope of action and promote its fundamental values on an international level. The Council of Europe also has five states which have observer status with the Organization: The Holy See (1970), the United States of America, Canada, and Japan (1996) and Mexico (1999).

Relations with non-member states across the world enable the Council of Europe’s activities to reach all corners of the globe. More than 45 non-member states are parties to Council of Europe conventions or associated with it as members or observers of or participants in partial agreements such as the Venice Commission and the North-South Centre. More and more of the Council of Europe’s legal instruments are drawn up in consultation with interested non-member states.

• The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE): The Council of Europe holds regular high-level meetings with the OSCE on areas such as terrorism, non-discrimination, the fight against trafficking in human beings and election observation. Both organizations have the same fundamental values of human rights, democracy and the rule of law targeting political stability, economic development, and social cohesion.
• The United Nations (UN): The UN and the Council of Europe co-operate on a wide range of different areas to protect and promote human rights. As a regional partner of the UN, the Council of Europe regularly contributes to the work of UN agencies and funds, especially in the fields of discrimination, human trafficking, violence against women and intercultural dialogue.
• Organization of American States (OAS): A wide range of areas of co-operation exist between the Council of Europe and the OAS, enshrined in a Memorandum of Understanding (2011), designed to achieve the institutions’ common objectives. These areas of co-operation include freedom of the media, data protection, women’s rights, social cohesion, electoral matters and fighting drug trafficking. There is also a constant exchange of information between the two institutions to help them tackle cybercrime and corruption.

For more information about Conventions and ratifications please visit: Full list – Treaty Office (coe.int).

9. Recruitment and Internships

Recruitment at the Council of Europe: The Council of Europe regularly organizes competitions.

If you are interested in discovering the profiles of the candidates, do not hesitate to consult the news of the competitions on Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter on “Council of Europe jobs“, or subscribe to the alerts to stay informed of the updates.

Internships at the Council of Europe: The Council of Europe hosts two official internship sessions per year, in March and September. These last between eight weeks and five months. Internships may take place in Strasbourg or in one of the field offices. Internships offered under the official program are eligible for a grant of 600 euros per month for interns based in Strasbourg and in the field offices or 300 euros per month for locally recruited interns in the field offices.

To be eligible, applicants must be citizens of one of the 46 member states of the Organization, have a first cycle degree (bachelor’s degree or equivalent) and a good knowledge of one of the two official languages of the Council of Europe (English or French). Applications may be submitted to only one department of the Organization. Please see the list of administrative entities.

For more information on admission requirements, the program, and the responsibilities of interns, visit the dedicated page on the Human Resources’ website.

10. Glossary of Terms

Accession: act whereby a state expresses its consent to be bound by a treaty. It has the same legal effect as ratification and is the instrument by which non-member states of the Organization become parties to the Council of Europe treaties.

Convention: a formal agreement, contract, pact, or treaty which is binding under international law. Most of the Council of Europe treaties are entitled “conventions” but some are referred to as “agreements,” “charters,” “codes” or “protocols.” Whatever their denomination, all these instruments are treaties as defined by the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

Instrument of ratification: document by which a state expresses its consent to be bound by a treaty. The instrument of ratification, acceptance or approval must be issued by the Head of State, Head of Government or Minister for Foreign Affairs and signed accordingly.

“Full powers”: document by which the Head of State, Head of Government or Minister for Foreign Affairs authorizes a person, usually an ambassador or a Minister, to sign a treaty on behalf of the State.

Procès-verbal: document prepared by the Treaty Office certifying that a state has signed, ratified, accepted, approved, or acceded to a treaty.

Recommendation: a proposal by the Parliamentary Assembly addressed to the Committee of Ministers. The implementation of this measure is beyond the competence of the Assembly, but governments can decide to act on the recommendations given.

Resolution: embodies a decision by the Assembly on a question of substance which it is empowered to put into effect, or an expression of a view for which it alone is responsible.

Signature: act whereby a state indicates its intention to become party to a treaty. In principle, the signature precedes the ratification of the treaty.

11. Useful Links

The following links give access to complete Council of Europe documents including working papers, press releases, newsletters, Court judgments and adopted texts. The list combines websites, general repositories, libraries, and information centers. There is no loan service.

• Council of Europe web portal
• Council of Europe Online Bookshop: The full catalogue features publications produced by the Organization over the last 10 years, a total of over 1,200 books and electronic publications. The works published by the Council of Europe include comparative studies, monographs, and topical debates, proceedings of colloquies, international legal instruments, and official texts.
• Edoc, Council of Europe free Resources: free documentation for the public on the site with a search engine to easily locate resources by topic and language and place orders for free documentation (PDF and/or Print versions). The database includes brochures, posters, documentation for teachers, book excerpts, etc.
• HUDOC: The HUDOC database provides access to the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights (Grand Chamber, Chamber and Committee judgments, decisions, communicated cases, advisory opinions, and legal summaries from the Case-Law Information Note), the European Commission of Human Rights (decisions and reports) and the Committee of Ministers (resolutions). The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) Portal is a powerful, modern, and user-friendly information system.
• Press releases collection: This collection contains all the press releases issued by the Registry since 1 January 1999. Available in English and French, they include summaries of judgments and decisions delivered by the Court and information about cases pending and about the Court’s activities in general. Press releases are normally available in both English and French and are in PDF format.
• Council of Europe working documents: The council of Europe has many means of primary resources available including websites and online databases which provide access to the full text of Council of Europe documents (working papers, press releases, newsletters, Court judgments, adopted texts, etc.). The list combines both general repositories and databases of specific entities European Court of Human Rights Library. The collections includes
  • Documentation and Case-Law on the European Convention on Human Rights;
  • International Public Law;
  • Constitutional Law.
• Documents, Records and Archives: information about the Council of Europe’s documents, records and archives, how they are organized and how to access them, whatever their format (audiovisual, electronic, paper or web archives).
• Press and Multimedia: Photos, video, press releases, thematic files, etc.
• Google Play: Thanks to a partnership with Google, more than 4 000 Council of Europe books are available in text in the Google Books database.
• HELP Training resources: A practical guide featuring a wide selection of case studies article by article on the application of human rights law.
• Treaty Office: Texts of treaties (Agreements, Charter, Conventions, Statute), explanatory reports, chart of signatures and ratifications.
• European Pharmacopoeia Library (EDQM): The collection contains:
  • various European Pharmacopoeia publications (official editions as well as Pharmeuropa and its special issues);
  • a wide collection of national pharmacopoeias from all over the world;
  • scientific and technical reference thesis in the field of the quality of medicines;
  • specialized magazines on research and pharmacy. Pharmacopoeias are a reference tool for pharmacists, industries, and public health authorities responsible for the quality control of commercialized medicines.
• CPT-Anti-Torture Committee: Database of the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) including CPT reports, public statements, and standards.
• Cultural Policies Collection: The collection includes books, articles, documents, also electronic ones, dealing with cultural policy issues. The emphasis is put on material with a European dimension.
• Documentation and Resource Centre of the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML): The collection on language education methodology includes:
  • the publications and workshop reports of the ECML;
  • materials relating to the major focuses of the Centre (e.g., organization and setting up of language learning and teaching, language awareness, intercultural competence, language education and ICT, quality assurance, learner autonomy, bilingual education, early language learning);
  • reference and specialized multimedia resources, publications of the Council of Europe Language Policy Division, international organizations, and national and cultural institutions of the Member States of the ECML.
• European Youth Centre Library, Budapest: The library put at the general disposal reference works, documents, files, and publications related to the work of the Council of Europe in the youth field. Special emphasis is given to human rights education and on national and international non-governmental youth organizations.
• Information Centre of the European Youth Centre, Strasbourg: The Information Centre provides documentation for the educational activities of the Directorate of Youth and Sport. Many documentation resources are also available online.
• Information Offices throughout Europe: Council of Europe information offices available in member states.
• North-South Documentation Centre, Lisbon: The collection of the Documentation Centre includes books and documents related to the different fields of work of the North-South Centre
• Visit us: Information about the visits at the Palais de l’Europe in Strasbourg and virtual visits of 7 buildings.
• Follow us on Twitter, Facebook, YouTube and Flickr
• Other contacts: Media contacts, Newsroom, Grants, Patronage, Photo galleries, Archives, Copyright, Logo and visual identity.

12. Human Rights Resources

Impact of the European Convention on Human Rights Website: This resource is aimed at citizens, teachers, students, journalists, human rights defenders, and government officials – all those who are interested in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its positive impact.

The updated version of this online information resource gives over 175 examples of judgments from the European Court of Human Rights and how their implementation has improved people’s lives across Europe. Examples of cases and their impact are shown by country and by theme, illustrated using a mixture of videos, animations, photographs, and quotes from those involved.

Human Rights Education for Legal Professional (Help) Online Courses: HELP is an educational platform primarily intended for legal professionals (judges, lawyers, prosecutors, and other law professionals) and university students, but also open to anyone. The online courses are interactive, visual, and practical. They cover various human rights-related topics, reflecting the different areas of the Council of Europe’s work.

ECHR HUDOC Database: The HUDOC database provides access to the case-law of the Court, the European Commission of Human Rights, and the Council of Europe’s Committee of Ministers.
Updated continuously, interface in eight languages, keyword and advanced search options, links to translations where available.

ECHR Knowledge Sharing Platform: This platform presents the latest analysis of case-law developments in a thematic manner, based on the articles of the European Convention on Human Rights and transversal themes. It is a comprehensive up-to-date source of information. Available in English and French, updated weekly, navigation by topic and article.

ECHR Admissibility Guide: This guide describes the conditions of admissibility which an application to the Court must meet. Practitioners and prospective applications should study the guide carefully before deciding whether to bring a case. Regularly updated, available in numerous languages.

ECHR Thematic Factsheets: 29 factsheets organized by theme on the Court’s case-law and pending cases. Translations in 15 languages.

ECHR Selection of Key Cases: Official selection of judgements, decisions, and advisory opinions (around 30 a year) which make a significant contribution to the development, clarification, or modification of the Court’s case-law. Published annually, contains hyperlinks to the related HUDOC database entry and, since 2016, to relevant legal summaries.

ECHR “Country Profiles”: Statistics and noteworthy past or pending cases in respect of each of the 46 Council of Europe member states plus Russia.

HUDOC-EXEC Database: This search engine improves the visibility and transparency of the execution of judgements of the European Court of Human Rights. It provides access to information and documentation on all cases pending before the Committee of Ministers, as well as cases closed by a final resolution, via a single unified interface. Searches can be made using a multitude of search criteria such as State, date, status of execution, violation, theme, etc.

---

[1] Member States: Our member States – The Council of Europe in brief (coe.int).

[2] Video, Strasbourg, naissance d’une Europe politique (2019).

[3] Virtual tours: Virtual visits to the Council of Europe – The Council of Europe in brief (coe.int).

[4] Video, History of the European Flag (last visited August 2023).

[5] Different versions: The European anthem – The Council of Europe in brief (coe.int).

[6] COM website: Home – Committee of Ministers (coe.int).

[7] PA website: Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (coe.int).

[8] CLRA website: Congress of Local and Regional Authorities – Congress of Local and Regional Authorities (coe.int).

[9] SG website: News – Secretary General (coe.int).

[10] CHR website: Home – Commissioner for Human Rights – Commissioner for Human Rights (coe.int).

[11] INGO website: Conference of INGOs – Homepage – Conference of INGOs (coe.int).

[12] Video, How are your Human Rights protected? (last visited August 2023).

[13] Convention: European Convention on Human Rights – The European Convention on Human Rights (coe.int).

[14] ECHR website: European Court of Human Rights – ECHR, CEDH, news, information, press releases (coe.int).