Regional Trade Agreements in Africa – A Historical and Bibliographic Report of ECOWAS and CEMAC

Miarom Bégoto holds a bachelor’s degree in private law from the University of N’Djaména (Chad) and two master’s degrees in private law and public law, human rights option, from the University of Lyon 2 and Grenoble 2 (France). He teaches at the National School of Administration of Chad and has held senior positions in the Chadian administration, notably at the Ministry of Justice and the former Supreme Audit Institution, which became a chamber of the Supreme Court. Elected as a member of the African Union’s Advisory Council on Corruption, he led the institution from 2017 to 2021. Mr. Bégoto is currently a Governance Consultant and Civil Administrator at the General Secretariat of the Government of Chad. Narcisse Djimbaye holds a master’s degree in private law from the University of N’Djamena (Chad) and two master’s degrees: one in law, management, economics, with a specialization in public administration, from the Université Lumière Lyon 2/France, and the other in intellectual property law and new technologies, obtained at the University of Yaoundé II. He is also a former student of the International Cycle of the Regional Institute of Administration (CiIRA) of Lyon. He is today a magistrate and judge at the N’Djamena commercial court.

1. Introduction

Efforts at regional and subregional integration in Africa date back to the immediate post-colonial period. They were seen as an extension of liberation movements and an effort to build economically viable and politically united geographical entities. This integration dynamic also reflected the prevailing European experience, which emphasized free trade within a common external tariff area.

Regional or subregional integration in Africa has had limited success due to several factors. The main ones are the parallel and often competing groupings that hijack the political will needed to succeed; the conflict between the development objectives of states and the expectations of their development partners, usually the former colonial masters or their associated groupings; the conflict between national structures and policies and the group’s objectives and agenda; personality conflicts; infrastructural constraints, institutional constraints, and national security constraints.

The promise of integration, in the form of expanding local markets, achieving economies of scale, and strengthening negotiating positions in global negotiations, is enough of an attraction for African countries to try again and again to forge these regional trade agreements. ECOWAS, the Economic Community of West African States, and CEMAC, the Central African Economic and Monetary Community, are regional trade agreements. The progress of these subregional organizations is constantly disrupted by the many upheavals of history which have affected them, and which are not meant to affect them. New critical situations, induced, among other things, by the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the first quarter of 2020, have led to a major shock to the economies of the Member States. In addition to this health crisis, we must add the persistence of terrorism in Syria and the Lake Chad Basin, the threat to the rule of law stemming from unconstitutional power grabs, the perverse effects of climate change and the armed conflict between Russia and Ukraine, which further weaken the economy. balance of the economies of ECOWAS and CEMAC.

2. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

The ECOWAS Treaty was signed in Lagos, Nigeria, on 28 May 1975 by the Heads of State and Government of 14 West African countries, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Guinea-Bissau acceded to the treaty later, in 1975. In 1979, Cape Verde became the 16th member country. In 2002, Mauritania, one of the first member countries, officially withdrew from the organization. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, it entered into force in June 1975 with the ratification of seven States.

Article 2(1) of the 1975 Treaty describes the objectives of the Community as follows:

“… to promote cooperation and development in all fields of economic activity, including industry, transport, telecommunications, energy, agriculture, natural resources, trade, monetary and financial matters, as well as in the social and cultural fields, with a view to raising the standard of living of its peoples and increasing and maintaining economic stability, to foster closer ties among its members and to contribute to the progress and development of the African continent.”

Article 2(2) of that Treaty explains that the Community is to ensure, in stages (emphasis added):

• the elimination, between Member States, of customs duties and other charges having equivalent effect on the import and export of goods;
• the abolition of quantitative and administrative restrictions on trade between Member States;
• the establishment of a common customs tariff and a common commercial policy with regard to third countries;
• the abolition, between Member States, of obstacles to the free movement of persons, services and capital;
• the harmonization of agricultural policies and the promotion of joint projects in the Member States, in particular in the fields of marketing, research and agro-industrial enterprises;
• the implementation of programmes for the common development of transport, communications, energy and infrastructure, as well as the elaboration of a common policy in these areas;
• the harmonization of the economic and industrial policies of the Member States and the elimination of disparities in the level of development of the Member States;
• the harmonization, necessary for the proper functioning of the Community, of the monetary policies of the Member States; the establishment of a Cooperation, Compensation and Development Fund;
• and all activities conducive to the attainment of the objectives of the Community….”

To achieve these objectives, the Treaty established the following institutions:

• The Authority of Heads of State and Government (AHSG), the main governing institution of the Community, whose decisions and directives are binding on all the Community institutions.
• The Council of Ministers (COM), composed of two representatives from each Member State and subordinate only to the AHSG. It is the responsibility of the Council of Ministers to monitor the functioning and development of the Community and to make recommendations to the Group of Experts on policy questions aimed at ensuring the effective and harmonious functioning and development of the Community.
• The Executive Secretariat, headed by an Executive Secretary who is the principal executive agent of the Community. The Executive Secretary and other officials of the Secretariat, in the performance of their duties, owe their full loyalty to the Community.

In addition to these Community institutions, the 1975 Treaty set up four technical and specialized committees in the following areas: trade, customs, immigration, currency, and payments; industry, agriculture, and natural resources; transport, telecommunications and energy; and social and cultural affairs. Each committee shall be composed of a representative of a Member State and any number of advisers. The Treaty also establishes the function of the External Auditor and Court of the Community. The latter was responsible for settling disputes between Member States concerning the interpretation or application of the Treaty which could not be settled amicably by direct agreement.

In 1975, the treaty created a grouping of 16 countries of unequal size, with Nigeria accounting for more than 65% of population and trade. Ghana, Senegal, and Côte d’Ivoire provided an additional 20%, while the remaining 12 countries provided 15% of the population. The political geography of ECOWAS also dictated that it was a grouping of coastal and landlocked countries, with the latter dependent on the former for transport services and trade. The language barriers inherited from the colonial era are significant. Nine countries are French-speaking, five are English-speaking and two are Portuguese-speaking. Added to this is the deliberate desire of metropolitan countries to distance themselves from ECOWAS. For example, as the idea of ECOWAS gained ground, France encouraged French-speaking West African states to transform a moribund regional organization into the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) with objectives like those of ECOWAS.

Similarly, the negotiations for the revision of the ECOWAS treaty in 1992-1993 coincided with the emergence of the new union of Francophones, the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), which benefited from France’s external guarantee. The 1975 Treaty provided for the establishment of a common market within 15 years. Given the many logistical, infrastructural, financial, and political obstacles and challenges, this timeframe was not realistic. In the end, the long-awaited increase in intra-regional trade did not materialize and the many protocols relating to the elimination of trade barriers were not respected. In short, most of the region’s economic activity has not been affected.

As expected, the Treaty was revised in 1993 to rationalize the aims and objectives of the Community and to improve the limitations of the past. The revised Treaty clarified the aims and objectives of the Community. It focused on the establishment of an economic union through the adoption of common policies in the economic, financial, social and cultural sectors and on the creation of a monetary union. The revised treaty also identifies ECOWAS as the only economic community in the region for the purposes of economic integration and the pillar of the achievement of the African Economic Community.

In addition, the Treaty lays down certain fundamental principles, including the promotion and consolidation of a system of democratic governance in the Member States. The revised Treaty created additional Community institutions, namely the Parliament of the Community, the Economic and Social Council and the Arbitration Tribunal. The Community Court of First Instance under the 1975 Treaty has been transformed into a genuine Community Court of Justice.

The revised Treaty defines more precisely the nature of Community legislation. The expert group has been described as acting by way of decisions, while the Commission must act by means of regulations. The decisions of the panel are binding on the Member States and all Community institutions. The Commission’s regulations are binding on all subordinate Community institutions and are binding on the Member States only after they have been approved by the expert group. Decisions and regulations are adopted, depending on the subject matter, by unanimity, consensus, or a two-thirds majority.

The revised treaty entrusts the Executive Secretary with the responsibility of publishing all decisions of the Ad Hoc Group of Experts as well as the regulations of the Markets Committee, 30 days after the date of signature. Such decisions and regulations shall automatically enter into force 60 days after the date of their publication in the Official Journal of the Community. The treaty also requires each member state to publish decisions and regulations in its national official journal within 30 days of their signature. In addition to the decisions and regulations set out in the Treaty, other secondary legislation takes the form of resolutions, recommendations, and declarations. These texts become binding only when they are published in the form of decisions or regulations.

The revised Treaty recognizes the inclination of Member States to conclude international agreements with both Member States and non-Member States. However, the treaty requires member states to avoid obligations that are inconsistent with their obligations under the ECOWAS treaty and to adopt common positions when dealing with non-member states and other international or regional organizations. In 2006, almost thirteen years after the revision of the treaty, the most significant results of ECOWAS were those concerning organizational issues such as the drafting of protocols and the conduct of studies.

However, the implementation of treaty obligations has left much to be desired. Genuine attempts at implementation have also been undermined by other measures. On the issue of free movement of persons, at its 23rd session in May 2000, the Ad Hoc Working Group adopted and launched the ECOWAS passport as a consecration of ECOWAS citizenship. Passports were to be introduced in the Member States, and national passports were to be phased out over five years. For many years, only Benin and Senegal introduced the ECOWAS passport.

Subsequently, other states followed suit. By 2012, 11 of the 15 States had finally adopted the ECOWAS passport (2012 Annual Report of the ECOWAS Commission, p. 62). Despite this, although visas have been abolished for nationals of Member States, there are many checkpoints, which remain a constant source of harassment and frustration for ECOWAS travelers.

The overarching objective of creating a common market has not fared any better. To achieve this objective, the Community has adopted a trade liberalization programme aimed at eliminating customs duties and taxes having equivalent effect on imports from ECOWAS since 1981 and at removing non-tariff barriers to intra-ECOWAS trade by 28 May 1985. The ECOWAS Cooperation, Compensation and Development Fund was established to compensate for the loss of customs revenue under the liberalization programme. The 2002 report of the Executive Secretary of ECOWAS, for example, notes:

“Unfortunately, the Executive Secretariat continues to receive complaints from Member States and economic operators about cases of refusal or failure to implement the scheme. Indeed, it is a fact that Member States still maintain non-tariff barriers such as bans and the requirement of special permits, against products of ECOWAS origin.”

ECOWAS has had limited success in infrastructure development. The coastal highway and the Sahelian highway have achieved a high completion rate. Studies have been initiated with a view to developing a master plan for regional railways. ECOWAS was cooperating with CEMAC in the framework of the Yamoussoukro decision to increase air transport activities with the main support of the World Bank and the European Union.

By early 2006, it had become clear that ECOWAS, as an integration structure, was not performing well enough. To address this, the 30th Ordinary Summit of Heads of State and Government, held in January 2006, adopted decisions aimed at deepening and accelerating the ECOWAS integration process. The aim was to strengthen the supranational powers of the organization and, in fact, to introduce a new legal regime. On 14 June 2006, these decisions were promulgated as Additional Protocol A/SP.1/06/06 amending the Revised Treaty of 1993. Under Article 17 of the Additional Protocol, the ECOWAS Secretariat was transformed into a Commission of nine members, composed of a Chairperson, a Vice-Chairperson and seven Commissioners. The Executive of the Community is currently headed by the President of the ECOWAS Commission who is appointed by the Authority for a non-renewable period of four years. He is assisted by a Vice-President and 13 Commissioners.

The Additional Protocol also approved a new structure for the ECOWAS Parliament to enable the institution to play its full role in the integration process. An additional law on strengthening the prerogatives of Parliament was adopted in December 2016 and is currently in the implementation phase. This was the Supplementary Act A/SA.1/12/16 on the strengthening of the prerogatives of the ECOWAS Parliament adopted on 17 December 2016 at the 50th Session of ECOWAS Heads of State and Government in Abuja.

The Summit also confirmed the strengthening of the institutional capacity of the Court of Justice of the Community to ensure that ECOWAS has a strong and independent jurisdiction. The Additional Protocol established a new legal regime, under which existing ECOWAS institutions continue to exercise their norm-setting authority with a slightly modified nomenclature and redefined legal consequences. Community acts, under the new regime, are referred to as supplementary acts, regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations, and opinions. The panel adopts the supplementary acts, while the Commission adopts regulations, issues directives, takes decisions or makes recommendations and opinions. The Commission, the former secretariat, may adopt rules on the implementation of acts adopted by the COM. The rules thus adopted by the Commission shall have the same legal force as the acts adopted by the COM for the implementation of which they are adopted. The Commission may also make recommendations and opinions (new Article 9).

Supplementary acts adopted by the Authority shall be binding on the Community institutions and the Member States, in so far as they are directly applicable. The regulations are general in scope. The provisions of the Regulations are binding and directly applicable in the Member States. They are also binding on the Community institutions. The Directives are binding on all Member States as to the objectives to be achieved, but Member States are free to adopt the arrangements they deem appropriate for the achievement of these objectives. Decisions are binding on all those to whom they are addressed. Recommendations and opinions are not legally binding (new Article 9). Unless otherwise provided, Community acts under consideration shall be adopted unanimously, by consensus or by a two-thirds majority of the Member States. (New Article 9).

Overall, ECOWAS remains of marginal interest to Western countries. Apart from Nigeria’s oil exports to the United States and Niger’s uranium exports to France, and perhaps France’s continued alliance with its former colonies, ECOWAS is merely a source of conflict and economic, demographic, and environmental crises. Its interest to the West can take the form of its ECOMOG forces in the region’s security problems and prevent Western nations from getting directly involved in foreign conflicts. The recent unconstitutional changes in Mali (18 August 2020), the Republic of Guinea (5 September 2021) and Burkina Faso (23 and 24 January 2022) are indicative of the fragility of ECOWAS’ political and institutional situations. In view of the challenges linked to good governance, the Commission must better accompany, in accordance with its treaties and fundamental principles, the military transitions underway in these countries towards truly democratic and sustainable processes. The same efforts to consolidate democracy and the rule of law are required in the CEMAC zone, which has also been facing, since April 2021, an unconstitutional change in Chad following the death of President Idriss Déby Itno.

3. Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC)

CEMAC is a reincarnation of one of Africa’s oldest regional trade agreements. Previously, it was known as the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). On 23 June 1959, just before gaining independence from France, Central Africa adopted a greenhouse gas emission allowance trading system. On June 23, 1959, just before gaining independence from France, the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, and Gabon, the four members of the former Federation of French Equatorial Africa, signed a convention creating an Equatorial African Customs Union, the Equatorial Customs Union (ECU).

On 8 December 1964, the EDU and independent Cameroon signed a treaty creating the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). It was not until 1983 that Equatorial Guinea became the sixth member of UDEAC. At the end of the 1960s, the UDEAC was plagued by dissension. The Central African Republic (CAR) and Chad, the least industrialized members, were threatening to withdraw. Under pressure from France, the CAR returned fully to the organization. Chad would not return until much later.

The UDEAC treaty underwent its first major revision in 1975. The 1975 treaty did not strengthen the authority or powers of the secretariat, as member countries were still committed to the notion of sovereign integrity. Finally, following the economic crises of 1980 to 1990, the six countries were convinced of the need for more dynamic integration and signed a new treaty on 16 March 1994 establishing the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC).

The CEMAC Treaty of 1994 stipulates that its essential mission is to promote the harmonious development of the member States within the framework of a genuine common market. To this end, it has set itself the following objectives under the leadership of two of its institutions, namely the Central African Economic Union (UEAC) and the Central African Monetary Union (UMAC):

• Establish a multilateral mechanism for monitoring the economic and financial policies of the Member States;
• Ensure a stable management of the common currency;
• Securing the environment for economic activities and companies in general;
• Harmonise the regulation of sectoral policies in the essential areas provided for in the Treaty, namely agriculture, fisheries, industry, trade, tourism, transport and telecommunications, energy and the environment, research, education and vocational training;
• Create a common market based on the free movement of persons, goods, services and capital.

The Treaty identifies the four Community institutions as follows:

• The Economic Union of Central Africa (UEAC)
• The Central African Monetary Union (UMAC)
• the European Parliament (PC)
• The European Court of Justice (ECJ)
• The CEMAC Court of Auditors

CEMAC thus constitutes a link between the Monetary Union, the Bank of Central African States (BEAC), the Customs Union and the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). To achieve the objectives of CEMAC, the treaty also established the following main bodies:

• The Conference of Heads of State (CEC), referred to as the supreme body of the Community. It determines the policy of the CEMAC and guides the action of the decision-making bodies of the two constituent unions, the UEAC and the UMAC, through complementary acts.
• The UEAC Council of Ministers (COM) is responsible for directing UEAC. It is composed mainly of the ministers responsible for finance and economic affairs of the Member States. Each national delegation shall have no more than three members and shall have only one vote. Where the issues under discussion do not fall within the scope of economic or financial policy, the COM shall bring together the ministers concerned on an ad hoc basis, whose deliberations will not be final until they have been adopted by the COM.
• The UMAC Ministerial Committee (CM) is responsible for leading UMAC. It is composed of two ministers per Member State, with the Minister of Finance being the head of the delegation. Unlike the COM, whose presidency is determined and identical to the nationality of the Member State holding the CEC presidency, the presidency of the CM is held in turn each year by the Member States in alphabetical order. The role of the CM is to examine economic trends within the Member States and to ensure consistency with the common monetary policy.
• The Executive Secretariat (SE) is headed by an Executive Secretary who is the main executive official of UEAC.
• Inter-State Committee (CIE); The Bank of Central African States (BEAC): The Central African Banking Commission (COBAC); The Development Finance Institution (DFI); The Central African Financial Market Supervisory Commission (COSUMAF).

The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) acts by means of acts complementary to the Treaty. These are supposed to supplement the treaty without modifying it. These supplementary acts are binding on the Community institutions and bodies and on the Member States. The COM and the CM act by means of regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations, or opinions.

The regulations and basic regulations are of general application. The regulations are binding in all respects and directly on all Member States. The basic regulations are directly binding only in certain respects. Directives are binding orders to the Member States to achieve a specific goal, while leaving them free to choose the form, means and way that goal is achieved. Decisions are binding only on the States or persons to whom they are addressed. Recommendations and opinions are not binding. Regulations, basic regulations, directives and decisions of the COM, the CM, the SE, and the Governor of the BEAC must be justified by law.

Supplementary acts, regulations and basic regulations must be published in the Official Gazette of the Community. They shall enter into force on the date laid down in the act or, failing that, on the twentieth day following their publication. Directives and decisions shall take effect on the date following the day on which they are notified to their addressees.

Although CEMAC was created in 1994, it was not until June 1999 that it became fully operational and replaced UDEAC. It is not surprising, therefore, that in 2008 Member States did not achieve the objectives they had set for themselves under the CEMAC Treaty. Trade within the region accounted for 2% of total imports and 1% of total exports. Paradoxically, trade between CEMAC and Nigeria was higher than trade between CEMAC countries. Bilateral trade between the European Union and CEMAC amounted to about €7 billion per year. The common market was still a long way off, and economic integration even more so. Pascal Lamy, the European Union’s commissioner for international trade, warned that “CEMAC must start by developing a common market in order to ensure sustainable regional integration.”

In 2008, CEMAC seized on the second wave of regionalization that affected Africa and decided to move towards greater integration through supranationalism. The CEMAC Treaty was revised accordingly on 25 June 2008. Article 63 of the Revised Treaty repeals the 1994 CEMAC Treaty and its Addendum of 25 April 2007. The Revised Treaty notified its supranationalism under Article 2 by specifying, first, that the essential mission of the organization is to promote peace and harmonious development among the Member States within the framework of the establishment of the two pre-existing unions, one economic and the other monetary. On the other hand, by stressing that, in each of these two areas, the Member States agree to move from existing inter-State cooperation to a union capable of carrying out the process of economic and monetary integration.

The revised treaty maintained most of the institutions and bodies originally created under previous CEMAC treaties, but with more integrative functions and powers and, in the case of the Secretariat, transformed it into a Commission, as the 2006 ECOWAS reform had done. The revised Treaty maintained the ECA as the Community’s governing body which defines Community policy and provides guidance for the work of the UEAC COM and the UMAC CM. The revised Treaty also maintained the COM and the CM as Community bodies with similar functions but renewed powers to ensure progress towards economic and monetary integration.

The revised treaty established a Commission in place of the former Secretariat. The Commission is composed of a President, a Vice-President, and Commissioners, each from a Member State, appointed by the ECA. The basic criteria for appointment to the Commission are competence, objectivity, and independence. The functions of the Commission are governed by the principle of collegiality and its decisions are taken by a majority of its members. In the event of a tie, the President shall have the casting vote. The Commission, like the Commission of the European Union (EU), is the guardian of the CEMAC treaties and represents the Community in international negotiations on matters related to its objectives. Like the EU Commission, it has the right to initiate draft legislation and to apply and implement Community policies and programs.

In addition to UEAC and UMAC, the revised Treaty re-established the Community Parliament and the Court of Justice of the Community as Community institutions. The enabling convention by which Parliament is to be fully established has not yet been adopted. When it is operational, Parliament is expected to legislate through directives. Parliament ensures democratic oversight of the institutions, bodies, offices, and specialized agencies involved in the decision-making process of the CEMAC (Article 47 of the revised Treaty). The Court of Justice remains the judicial organ of the CEMAC, responsible for the interpretation and implementation of the Treaty and its conventions. The Court has jurisdiction over contentious disputes and may also give advisory opinions. It comprises a Judicial Chamber (Articles 11-25 of the Convention of the Court of Justice) and a Chamber of Auditors (Articles 26-29 of the Convention of the Court of Justice). The Community Court of Justice has been replaced by two separate entities, in accordance with the post-2008 guidelines: a CEMAC Court of Justice and a CEMAC Court of Auditors (Article 10 of the revised Treaty of 25 June 2008).

The revised Treaty re-established a community legal system on the model of the European Union and ECOWAS. The COM and the CM adopt regulations, framework regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations, and opinions (Article 40 of the Revised Treaty). A regulation is of general application and is binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States. The framework regulations are binding only in respect of certain elements. A directive is binding on each Member State as to the result to be achieved, but not as to the form and means. A decision shall be binding in its entirety on the persons to whom it relates. Recommendations and opinions are not binding.

The vision of the CEMAC is now articulated around the Regional Economic Programme (PER) whose objective is to make the sub-regional institution, by 2025, “an integrated, emerging economic space where security, solidarity and good governance reign in the service of human development”. Adopted in 2010 by the member countries of the Community to meet the challenges of integration, the PER aims to develop the main resources of the sub-region and to build a competitive, diversified, and high value-added economy. It governs the development of the CEMAC zone as a whole and presents an emergence agenda for 2010-2025 in three five-year phases:

• The 2010-2015 phase, which consists of building the institutional foundations for emergence;
• The 2016-2020 phase, which aims to anchor the pillars of community economic diversity;
• The 2021-2025 phase aims to consolidate the previous phases.

On the one hand, the PER makes it possible to ensure a good articulation between the agenda of CEMAC, its Member States and the private sector, and that of the Community’s development partners and, on the other hand, offers opportunities for complementarity between the interventions of the various donors at the Community level. It is divided into 5 axes, 12 strategic objectives, 29 programs and 86 projects.

Both ECOWAS and CEMAC have very similar objectives: an ever-closer union within each sub-region. While integration within ECOWAS is progressing, that of CEMAC remains mixed due to low trade rates, protectionist tendencies and leadership squabbles.

Ultimately, regional integration is the modality that Africa needs to refine to meet the challenges of the inevitable onslaught of globalization. It is to be hoped that the many parallel and competing groupings will give way to a broader political and economic union, as provided for in the treaties of the African Union and the African Economic Community. Faced with realities that are as persistent as they are worrying for the two subregions, ECOWAS and CEMAC, which have a sincere desire to see Member States move forward and write their history differently, must fight the demons that have long prevented the political, economic and social development of sub-Saharan Africa. In this context, it is desirable to prepare future generations for the rejection of political and ideological violence and the seizure of power by force, which could multiply in the years to come. Economic growth in Central and West Africa depends on the anchoring of democracy and the legitimacy of governments within each subregion.

4. Compilation of ECOWAS Treaties, Protocols and Conventions

Printed Sources

• Compendium of Protocols, Conventions and Decisions on the Free Movement of Persons and Goods. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1998.
• Compilation of protocols, conventions and decisions relating to the free movement of persons and goods. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1992.
• ECOWAS Compendium on Freedom of Movement, Right of Residence and Establishment. Abuja: ECOWAS, 1999.
• International Legal Materials. Washington, DC, A.S.I.L., 1962.
• Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Lagos, ECOWAS, 1979.
• Protocols annexed to the ECOWAS Treaty. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1989.
• Protocols, decisions, resolutions, and guidelines relating to the ECOWAS transport programme. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1992.
• Protocol A/P.1/7/93 on the West African Monetary Agency (WAMA) Cotonou, ECOWAS, 1993
• Revised Treaty. Lomé, Presses de l’Université du Bénin, 1995.
• Processed and communicated. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1977.
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Treaty. Lagos, ECOWAS, 1975.
• United Nations Treaty Series. New York, UN, 1945

Electronic Services

• ECOWAS official website
• Lexis’ international legal documents contain some of these treaties and protocols.
• United Nations Treaty Series
• Westlaw’s International Legal Materials contains some of these treaties and protocols.

5. Compilation of CEMAC Treaties, Protocols and Conventions

Printed Sources

• Official Bulletin of the CEMAC. Bangui, 1994–
• Official Journal of UDEAC, Douala, 1992–
• Maritime Cooperation Protocol in UDEAC/CEMAC. Bangui, 1994–
• Organic texts of the CEMAC, Bangui–

Electronic Sources

• Official Bulletin of the CEMAC
• CEMAC official website

6. Compilations of ECOWAS Regulations, Decisions and Guidelines

Printed Sources

• Boletin Oficial – Guinea-Bissau, Imprensa Nacional, 1974–. (Also appears in French as Bulletin Officiel/Republic of Guinea-Bissau.)
• Gambia Government Gazette. Banjul. Government Printer, 1965–
• Ghana Gazette, Accra, Government Printing Office, 1957–
• Official Journal of the People’s Republic of Benin. Port Novo, 1975–
• Official Journal of Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou, 1984–
• Official Journal of the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire. Abidjan, Service des Journals Officiels, 1958–
• Official Journal of the Republic of Guinea. Conakry, Imp. Nationale “Patrice Lumumba”, 1984-
• Official Journal of the Republic of Niger. Niamey, Imp. Nationale du Niger, 1959–
• Official Journal of the Togolese Republic. Lomé, Office of the President, 1956–
• Official Journal of the Republic of Senegal, Dakar, Official Print, 1960–
• Official Gazette of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Lagos, 1963–
• Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States. (ECOWAS). Lagos, ECOWAS, 1979–
• Sierra Leone Gazette. Freetown, Government Printer, 1961–

Electronic Sources

• ECOWAS Regional Climate Strategy
• ECOWAS Policy for Children
• Women, Peace and Security Guidelines
• Information Bulletin of the Regional Food Security Reserve
• ECOWAS Strategy and Action Plans for Disaster Risk Reduction
• ECOWAS Humanitarian Policy & ECOWAS Humanitarian Policy Action Plan (2018–2022)
• CEDEA Legal Documents PlatformO

7. Compilation of the Basic Acts and Regulations of the CEMAC.

Printed Sources

• Official Bulletin of the CEMAC. Bangui, CEMAC, 1994–
• Official bulletin of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. Yaoundé, 1972–
• Official Journal of the Central African Republic. Bangui, 1979 – Official Journal of the Central African Republic
• Official Journal of the Republic of Chad. N’Djamena, 1959–
• Official Journal of the People’s Republic of Congo. Brazzaville, 1958–
• Official Journal of the Gabonese Republic. Libreville, Official Journal Service, 1959–

Electronic Sources

• Official Bulletin of the CEMAC
• CEMAC Commission, Additional Acts, Cemac.int.
• CEMAC Commission, Decisions, Regulations and Directives, Cemac.int.

Proceedings

• Act Add. Establishing Day CEMAC
• Act Add. Harmonization duration mandates heads CEMAC institutions
• Act Add. Visa Suppression within CEMAC
• Act Add. Common Policy Adoption for Emigration/Immigration
• Act Add. UDEAC Libre Traffic and Law Establishment
• Act Add. Laying Down the Statute of the Court of Justice
• Act Add. Implementation of Multilateral Monitoring Tools
• Act Add. Working Conditions for Interstate Transporters
• Act Add. Working Conditions for Maritime Professions and Transport Auxiliaries
• Act Add. Transport Policy for African Power Plants by 2035
• Act Add. Energy Policy for African Power Plants by 2035
• Act Add. Spatial Planning Policy
• Act Add. Designation of Representatives of Member States Near Bangui Community Headquarters
• Act Add. PER Adoption and Creation CEMAC Emergence Fund
• Act Add No 01 Establishing the Statute of the Arbitration Centre of the Court of Justice

Rules

• Tax Treaty 2019
• Competition Rules Enforcement Procedure Regulation 2023
• Regulations on the creation, organization and functioning of the Mixed Brigade-CEMAC
• Regulation on the Procedure for the Establishment of Customs Offices “Juxtaposed” at the Borders of CEMAC Member States
• Regulation Establishing the Status of Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) and the Modalities of Mutual Recognition in the CEMAC Zone
• Regulation Amending and Supplementing Certain Provisions of Regulation No. 000350
• Regulation on the Procedure for the Application of Competition Rules
• Competition Regulations
• Financial Regulation of the Community
• Rgmt No. 02 Exempting from seizure of foreign currency accounts in the CEMAC of extractive companies
• Rgmt N° 18 Establishing a Label and Accreditation Called Accreditation Labe CEMAC of Excellence, abbreviated ALCE
• Rgmt N° 19 Laying Down the Technical Modalities for the Management of the System of Capitalizable and Transferable Credits (SCCT) in the CEMAC area of Higher Education, Research and Vocational Training
• Rgmt N° 20 Adopting the Diploma Supplement in the CEMAC Area of Higher Education, Research and Vocational Training
• Rgmt No. 21 Adopting the CEMAC CET according to the 2022 version of the SE
• Rgmt No. 22 Adopting the Framework Agreement on the Mutual Recognition of Professional Qualifications
• Rgmt N° 23 Relating to the Free Movement and Establishment of Lawyers Nationals of CEMAC Countries
• Rgmt N° 24 Establishing a CEMAC Customs Technical Sub-Committee to the Regional Committee for Trade Facilitation African Power Plants
• Rgmt No. 25 Establishing the Observatory for the Application of Customs and Tax Legislation of the CEMAC
• Regulation – Adoption of the Civil Aircraft Security Agreement
• Regulation – Attribution of jurisdiction to COBAC for Co-op Agreements
• Regulation – Corrigendum Conditions for Access to the Profession of Road Haulier
• Regulation – Adoption of the Civil Aircraft Security Agreement
• Regulation – Creation of the Guarantee Fund of Deposits in African Power Plants
• Regulation – Allotment competence at COBAC
• Regulation – Corrigendum Rgmt Management and issuance of CEMAC Passport
• Regulation – Exercise and control Microfinance activity in CEMAC
• Regulation – Homologation Committee Regional Financial Standardization
• Regulation – Procurement procedures
• Regulation – Revision of Profession Status Tax Advice
• Regulation – Public Securities to free subscription issued by CEMAC States
• Regulation – Seed Sector Development Program
• Regulation – Adoption of tariff classification of 4 products
• Regulation – Facilitated adoption granted to travelers
• Regulation – Setting out the terms of intervention and management of the FODEC
• Regulation – Creation of the Rectors’ and Rectors’ Conference Organizations Research
• Regulation – Adoption of a single administrative document
• Regulation – Institution Community Programme Inter-University Exchange
• Regulation – Approving MAJ TEC CEMAC Ver.2002 SH
• Regulation – Organization and functioning of the CEMAC Orders
• Regulation No. 06/09-UEAC-201-CM-20 – Procedures for the award, implementation and regulation of Community public contracts

8. Important Treaties and Organic Texts

General

• Constitutive Act of the African Union. Done at Lomé, Togo, 11 July 2000. UNTS registration number 37733.
• Treaty establishing the African Economic Community. Done at Abuja, Nigeria, this 3rd day of June 1991. 30 ILM 1241 (1991).
• Agreement establishing the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) of 21 March 2018.

ECOWAS

• Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States. Done at Lagos, Nigeria, 28 May 1975. 14 ILM 1200 (1975); UNTS Registration Number 14843
• Revised ECOWAS Treaty. Done at Cotonou, Benin, 24 July 1993. 35 ILM 660 (1996)
• Additional Protocol A/SP.1/06/06 amending the 1993 Revised Treaty.

CEMAC

• Treaty establishing the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). Done at Brazzaville, Federal Republic of the Congo, 8 December 1964. 4 ILM 699 (1965).
• Treaty establishing the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC). Done at N’Djamena, Chad, on 16 March 1994.
• Revised Treaty of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central African States/Communauté Economique et Monetaire de l’Afrique Centrale (CEMAC) Done at Yaoundé, Cameroon, 25 June 2008.
• Addendum to the Treaty on the Transformation of the Executive Secretariat into a Committee, 25 April 2007, cemac.int.
• Convention governing the Community Court of Auditors.
• Convention governing the European Court of Justice.
• Convention of the European Parliament.
• UMAC Convention.
• UEAC Convention.

9. Treaties, Books and Reports on African Regional Integration

• Adejumobi, Said & Adebayo O. Olukoshi. The African Union and New Development Strategies in Africa. Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2008.
• Africa Regional Integration Assessment 2008: Towards Monetary and Financial Integration in Africa. Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 2008.
• Africa: Regional Integration in the Face of Globalization, by Abdou Diouf, in Politique étrangère 2006/4 (Hiver), pages 785 to 797, Éditions Institut français des relations internationales, 24 July 1993.
• African Integration Report, State of Regional Integration in Africa, Promoting Intra-African Trade for Covid-19 Recovery, December 2020, pages 119.
• African Union Commission (2019), African Regional Integration Report: Towards an Integrated, Prosperous and Peaceful Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• African Union Commission, Department of Economic Affairs, Report on the State of Regional Integration in Africa, Executive Summary, February 2019.
• Ajomo, M. Ayo & Omobolaji. Adewale. African Economic Community Treaty: Issues, Problems, and Prospects. Lagos: Nigerian Institute for Advanced Legal Studies, 1993
• Akinbobola, Ayo. Regional Integration in West Africa: A Challenge for Emerging States. Lagos: Political and Administrative Resource Centre, 2007
• Akinrinade, Olusola & Kurt J. Barling. Economic Development in Africa International Efforts, Issues, and Prospects London: Pinter, 1987 Microform
• Akinyeye, O.A. Nation-States and the Challenges of Regional Integration in West Africa: The Case of Nigeria. Paris: Karthala, 2010
• Amuwo, Kunle. Civil Society, Governance and Regional Integration in Africa. Nairobi: Development Policy Management Forum, 2009.
• Assessment of Regional Integration in Africa IV: Enhancing Intra-African Trade. Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 2010
• Assessment of Regional Integration in Africa: V: Towards an African Continental Free Trade Area. Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 2012
• Bakut Tswah Bakut & Dutt, Sagarika. Africa in the Millennium: An Agenda for Mature Development Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave, 2000
• Brown, Myra Leann. Decision- Making in Developing Countries Regarding Participation in Regional Economic Organizations; Comparison of an Andean Pact, Ecowas and Asean case. Thesis/Dissertation/Manuscript: Microform Archival Material
• Bruntrup, Michael, Henning Melber & Ian Taylor. Africa, Regional Cooperation and the Global Market: Socio-Economic Strategies in Times of Global Trade Regimes. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitut, 2006
• Evaluation of Regional Integration in Africa VI: Harmonizing Policies to Transform the Business Environment: An Overview. Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 2013.
• Gondwe, Carlton H. M. Dependency, Economic Integration and Development in Developing Areas: The Cases of EAC, ECOWAS and SADCC. Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 1988.
• Gruhn, Isebill V. Regional Integration in Africa: Lessons of History. Santa Cruz, Calif.: Department of Politics, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1980.
• Hudock, James A. Regional Cooperation among Less Industrialized Countries: a Political Economy Perspective of ASEAN, ECOWAS, and the CACMThesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material Archival Material, 1998.
• Ikome, Francis Nguendi. From the Lagos Plan of Action to the New Partnership for Africa’s Development: The Political Economy of African Regional Initiatives. Midrand, South Africa: Institute for Global Dialogue, 2007.
• International and Regional Organizations Into the 21st century. Washington: Washington and Jefferson College, 1998.
• Keller, Edmond J. & Donald S. Rothschild. Africa in the New International Order: Rethinking State Sovereignty and Regional Security Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996.
• KEMOKO (D), African Integration Law: Community Organizations in West Africa, Relations between Sub-Regional Organizations, the African Union and the United Nations, Priority Challenges of Integration in Africa, Harmattan Edition, 1 October 2017, 192 pages.
• Lebale, Norbert, J.D. Nkurunziza, Shigehisa Kasahara & Martin Halle. African Economic Development Report 2009: Strengthening Regional Economic Integration for Africa’s Development. New York; Geneva: United Nations, 2009.
• LELART (M) (1997), «An example of institutional integration: the evolution of the franc zone, the Treaty of Maastricht to the WAEMU Treaty”, In Third World Review, Vol. 38, No. 152 (October-December 1997), p. 897-918 (22 pages), publications de la Sorbonne.
• Liberalization and Regional Integration in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference in Arusha, Tanzania. 25-28 May 1992. Nairobi, Kenya: Friedrich Naumann-Stiftung, 1993.
• LOPES I, “Integration step by step”, in Finance and Development, June 2016.
• Makhan, Vijay S. Making Regional Integration Work in Africa: A Reflection on Strategies and Institutional Requirements. Harare: African Capacity Building Foundation, 2009
• Mazzeo, Domenico. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984
• Metzer, Martina. Regional Cooperation and Integration in Sub-Saharan Africa. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2008.
• Ninson, Kwame Akon. Nation-States and the Challenges of Regional Integration in West Africa: The Case of Ghana. Paris: Karthala, 2009
• Oduro, A. D. Africa in the Multilateral Trading System: Opportunities and Challenges. North Accra, Ghana: Centre for Policy Analysis, 2001
• Osanakpo, Theo Chike, The EEC and ECOWAS: Some Comparative Legal Perspectives. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival documents 1984.
• Political Parties and Regional Integration in Africa. Nairobi: Centre for Governance and Development, 2008.
• Proposals for the rationalization of West Africa’s integration efforts. Lagos: ECOWAS, 1987.
• Renninger, John P. ECOWAS and Other West African Regional Organizations. Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 1980.
• Review of the Economic Integration Experience of LAIA, ASEAN, CACM and ECOWAS: Report. Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 1991
• Ross-Larson, Bruce Clifford. Assessing Regional integration in Africa II: Rationalizing Regional Economic Communities. Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 2006.
• SIMÃO (L. M), “Regional Integration in Africa: A Past Process… for what results”? in Angolan Journal of Social Sciences MULEMBA n° 6 (12).
• Specialized Technical Committee on Finance, Monetary Affairs, Economic Planning and Integration, Report on the State of Regional Integration in Africa, Executive Summary, Yaoundé, Cameroon, 4-6 March 2019, 8 pages.
• Tolentino, Corsino & Matthias Vogl. Sustainable Regional Integration in West Africa. Bonn: Zentrum für Europaische Integrationsforschung, 2011
• United Nations. Economic Commission for Africa; African Development Bank (2022), State of Regional Integration in Africa X: Liberalization and Integration of Trade in Services in Africa under the AfCFTA. Addis Ababa: © UN. CEA, https://hdl.handle.net/10855/47583.
• Welz, Martin. Integrating Africa: The Legacies of Decolonization, Sovereignty and the African Union. New York: Routledge, 2013

10. Treaties, Books and Reports on ECOWAS

• Abimbola, S. O. ECOWAS: What? What for? How? Where? And When? Lagos: ECOWAS, 1989
• Adibe, Clement E. ECOWAS and the Democratic Imperative Kingston: Centre for International Relations, Queen’s University, 1994
• Adibe, Clément Emenike Some Empirical Limitations to the Growth of Integration in West Africa a Case Study of the Economic Community of West African States ECOWAS. Ottawa: National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque Nationale du Canada, 1991 Microform
• Adkisson, Stephen C. Integration in West Africa: An Empirical Examination of ECOWAS Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material, 1984.
• Akinyemi, Nurudeen B., Political Obstacles to Regional Economic Integration in West Africa: a Case Study of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material, 1986.
• ALIOUNE (S), The Litigation of the Violation of Human Rights before the ECOWAS Courtof Justice, Harmattan, 1 July 2019, 270 pages.
• Anadi, Sunday K.M. Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS. Zurich: University Dissertation, 2005
• Ankrah, Marvin Nii. Regionalism and Political Instability in West Africa: Developments, Challenges and Prospects. Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2013.
• Asante, S. K. B., The Political Economy of Regionalism in Africa: a Decade of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) New York: Praeger, 1986
• Baah-Dwomoh, Joseph. ECOWAS: Impetus, Potentials and Obstacles. 1977
• Bah, Alhaji Mohamed Sirjoh. Political Issues and Regional Integration: A Case Study of Nigeria’s Policy in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) – 1979-1997. South Africa: 1999.
• Bala, Maiyaki Theodore. A Handbook of the ECOWAS Treaty and Financial Institutions. Bloomington: Authorhouse, 2012.
• BOURDET (Y), “Limits and Challenges of Regional Integration in West Africa”, Department of Economics, Lund University, Printing: Edita Communication AB, 2005 Article number: SIDA4901en.
• Chambas, Muhammad Ibn. ECOWAS Agenda: Promoting Good Governance, Peace, Stability and Sustainable Development. Lagos: Nigeria Institute of International Affairs, 2005
• Documents presented during ECOWAS Week: Accra, Ghana, 21-25 July 1975. Accra: Public Relations Division, Ministry of Economic Planning, 1975.
• Economic Community of West African States, African Regional Integration Index, 2023.
• Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): an overview of the countries of the Economic Community of West Africa. Lagos: ECOWAS, 1980-1989.
• Economic Community of West African States. Lagos: ECOWAS Executive Secretariat, ECOWAS Review, 1990-1997.
• ECOWAS: Achievements, Challenges and Future Prospects. Lagos: ECOWAS Executive Secretariat, 1990
• ECOWAS: Documents presented at the Conference on the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Washington, D.C., June 9-14, 1980.
• ECOWAS: Stages of Regional Integration. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 2009
• Edi, Eric M. Globalization and Politics in the Economic Community of West African States. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2007
• Egbikuadje, John Nakpodia Igho. ECOWAS, a regional approach to development and self-reliance. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival material Archives, 1990.
• EL-ABIBALAYE (D), ECOWAS and Integration in West Africa, State of Play, Challenges and Perspectives, European University Publishing, 22/07/2022, 64 pages.
• Ezenwe, Uka. ECOWAS and the Economic Integration of West Africa. New York, St Martin’s Press, 1983.
• Gambari, Ibrahim A. Political and Comparative Dimensions of Regional Integration: The Case of ECOWAS Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press International, 1991
• Harrell-Bond, Barbara E., ECOWAS, Economic Community of West African States Hanover: American Universities Field Staff, 1979
• International Conference on the Economic Community of West African States, Lagos, 1976. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1976.
• Joof, Mam Biram. Intra-African cooperation, the case of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Berlin: Deutsche Stiftung für Internationale Entwicklung, 1981
• Kuffour, Kofi Oteng. The institutional transformation of the Economic Community of West African States. Ashgate: Surrey, 2006
• Kwarteng, Charles Owusu. The Challenges of Regional Economic Cooperation among ECOWAS States in West Africa. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 1989.
• Mac-Thompson, Donald Regional Functional Integration in West Africa: ECOWAS and Economic Development. Ann Arbor: University Microfilm International, 1988
• Markham, Theodore Kofi. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): A theoretical assessment of gains, challenges and prospects. 1976
• Mensah, Endowed R. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Lomé, ECOWAS Cooperation, Compensation and Development Fund, 1984
• Munu, Alhaji M. The Future of ECOWAS Lagos: The Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1989.
• NDIAGA (s), Customs Law and Transnational Organized Crime in the ECOWAS Region, Harmattan 2019, 406 pages.
• Okafor, Chinyelugo Johnson. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Its role in promoting economic cooperation and integration in the West African sub-region. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival documents, 1979.
• Okoh, Wilfred Ijeamaka Kelechukwu. Surge and decline in Nigeria’s Regional Economic Activities: Ecowas, 1979 Reconsidered 1975-1992. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material l, 1992.
• Oloruntimehin, B. Olatunji. Rebuilding ECOWAS on Democratic Principles Ibadan: Development Policy Centre, 2000.
• Onwuka, Ralph I. Development and Integration in West Africa: The Case of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press, 1982.
• Overview of the economies of the countries of the Economic Community of West Africa: Lagos 1990-1991.
• Overview of the Economy of the Countries of the Economic Community of West Africa: Dakar: International Centre for Foreign Trade of Senegal (CICES), 1988.Papers on ECOWAS: Prepared Under the Auspices of the Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. Lagos: Institute, 1976-1979.
• Progress report on the implementation of the ECOWAS Economic Recovery Programme. Lagos: ECOWAS Executive Secretariat, 1989
• Ranganathan I & Foster (V), The ECOWAS Infrastructure: A Regional Perspective. Washington, D.C. World Bank, 2011.
• Readings and Documents on ECOWAS: Selected Documents and Discussions at the 1976 Conference of the Economic Community of West African States. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1983.
• Renninger, John P. ECOWAS and Other West African Regional Organizations. Washington, D.C.: Department of State, 1980.
• Senghor, Jeggan Colley. ECOWAS: Prospects for Revision and Reform of Treaties. Dakar: United Nations, African Institute for Economic Development and Planning, 1993.
• Stacy, Marilyn and Karen McIlvaine, ECOWAS, Select Readings, 1975-1981. Washington: African Development Information Association U.S.A., 1982.
• Ten years of ECOWAS. Lagos: ECOWAS, 1985.
• Thomas, Robert A. The origins, evolution and performance of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Since 1975. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 1988.
• Ubogu, Roland E. & George M. Adamu. Development Planning Priorities and Strategies in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational, 1983.
• Udom, Udoh Elijah. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): The Quest for Theory. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, archival documents, 1980.
• Wayo, Ishobee. Regional Integration in West Africa: The Attitude of ECOWAS Leaders. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1982.
• West Africa Finds a New Future: Speech by Heads of State at the ECOWAS Summit in Lagos, 27-28 May 1975. Lagos: Economic Community of West African States, 1975.
• Zormelo, Douglas Kudzo-Kota. Theories of Integration and Economic Development: A Case Study of the Political and Social Dynamics of ECOWAS. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Documents, 1994
• Zormelo, Justice & Jackson, Jeffrey. ECOWAS: Performance, Promise and Problems. Washington, D.C.: Africa Business and Economic Review, 1980.

11. CEMAC Treaties, Books and Reports

• AVOM (D), BOBBO (A) and MIGNAMISSI (D), Enhancing the Effectiveness of Macroeconomic Convergence in CEMAC, 2015/4 Vol. 23.
• AVOM (D), Regional Integration in the CEMAC: Recurrent Institutional Problems, 2007/2 No. 222.
• BAMOU €, Regional Integration and Economic Performance of CEMAC Countries, European University Publishing.
• Bank of Central African States, Monetary Policy Reports, 2022-2023.
• BATCHOM (P.E.J), The breakdown of the Fort-Lamy consensus and the change in the balance of power in the CEMAC region, In Magazine International Studies, Volume 43, Number 2, June 2012, pp. 163–18“.
• “Broad Economic Policy Guidelines (BEPGs) for 2021 of the Member States and the Cemacint Community”, in CEMAC report and studies. 11 pages.
• Broad Economic Policy Guidelines for 2”18”.
• CEMAC Commission, Studies and Reports.
• CEMAC Executive Secretariat, Report on the activities of the first phase of the CEMAC economic integration process (1999-2004), 2004.
• CEMAC, Final Multilateral Monitoring Report 2019 and Outlook for 2020 and 2021, 39th edition, October 2020.
• CEMAC 2025: Towards an Integrated and Emerging Regional Economy, Regional Economic Programme 2010-2015, Volume 1: Final Report 166 pages.
• Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC): Staff Report on Common Policies for Member Countries. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2013.
• Cooperation s monetary Afrique-France, economic and financial report 2019 on CEMAC, UEMOA and the Union of the Comoros, Banque de France 2020, 144 pages.
• Darlan, Guy. Regional Integration: Africa’s Solution to Development; a case study of the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival documents, 1973.
• Dibas-Franck, Eric, Maritime Law in the CEMAC Zone, The Harmattan, 07/16/2018, 258 pages.
• ECCAS and CEMAC White Paper: Regional Policy for Universal Access to Modern Energy Services and Economic and Social Development, 2014 – 2030.
• Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) Business Law Handbook. Washington, DC: International Business S, 2003
• ELONGO (Y. K), Revised Treaty of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC): Article-by-Article Commentary, Presses universitaires d’Afrique, 2020, 368 pages.
• Ettangondop, Mbu. Regional Integration in Africa: A Case Study of the Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC) / Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1985.
• “Foundation for Studies and Research on International Development, CEMAC facing the impacts of the Covid-19 coronavirus”, Report April 2020, 39 pages.
• HAGGAR (H. A-B), The Economic and Monetary Community of the States of Central Africa (CEMAC): Obstacles to Integration in the CEMAC Zone, E études Eurafricans, 25 August 2022, 184 pages.
• KITCHEN, Richard L. Problems of Regional Integration in Africa: The Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). Bradford: Development and Project Planning Centre, University of Bradford, 1990.
• KOBILA (J. M), La jurisprudence de la Cour de Justice de la CEMAC, Larcier, 11 March 2021, 752 p.
• LIBONG BADJAN (P), Institutional reforms of the CEMAC – Jeu des acteurs (The game of actors, interest of the States), l’Harmattan, 01/10/2013, 168 pages.
• MBADINGA MADYA (H), Financial Integration and Development in Africa: CEMAC at the Crossroads, African Studies, 23 August 2021, 164 pages.
• MBA-OWONO I, Community Business Law CEMAC, LGDJ African Rights, 1st edition, April 2016, 488 page.
• NSANA (I), Educational Policies and the Challenge of Integration in the CEMAC Zone: Responding to the Challenge of Harmonization, Collection a.univ.europ., 2020, 132 pages.
• PEMBELLET SOUNGANI (J-M), Système institutionnel de la Cémac, l’Hamattan, 06.04.2016, 174 pages.
• Progress Report on the Integration Process in Central Africa, Intergovernmental Committee of Experts 2011: “Challenges and Opportunities of Industrial Policies in Central Africa “, Yaoundé, 11-12 March 2011.
• “State of Regional Integration in Africa V”: Towards an African Continental Free Trade Area, Economic Commission for Africa publication, June 2012.
• Summary Note Indicators of the Common Commercial Policy in the CEMAC Zone in 2022, April 2022, in Studies and Reports of the CEMAC Commission, 10 pages.
• Summary of the Report on the Implementation of the Recommendations of COMAI V, AU Department of Economic Affairs, September 2012.
• TENGO (L), Public Procurement Law in CEMAC Member States, Inkjets, January 2022, 388 pages.
• “Trade and Cycle Synchronization in CEMAC Countries”, BEAC Working Paper, BWP No. 05/2017.
• ZAFAR (A) & KEIKO (K), Regional Integration in Central Africa: Key Issues, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2003.

12. ECOWAS Sector Survey

• Abban, J.B. Industrialization in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Tokyo: Institute for Developing Economies, 1983
• Akanji, O.O. Compilation of Foreign Trade Statistics in the ECOWAS Region: Problems, Recent Developments and Prospects Abuja: Central Bank of Nigeria, 1998
• Akwule, Raymond. Telecommunications in West Africa: An Analysis of Perceptions of Selected Diplomatic Elites on Regional Cooperation in the Field of Telecommunications within the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 1985, ©1986.
• ALIOUNE (S), Les relations extérieur de la ECOWAS, l’Harmattan, 1 December 2016, 248 pages.
• ALIOUNE (S), The Justice of Integration: Reflections on the Judicial Institutions of ECOWAS and UEMOA – Second Edition revised, corrected and augmented (Harmattan Senegal), April 2018, 492 pages.
• ANDALLA (Dia), ECOWAS Single Currency, conditions for an efficient, armonized and stabilized exchange rate system, Collection: Harmattan, Senegal, 25 January 2023.
• BILGHO PALAKWINDE (T. R), The Court of Justice of the ECOWAS Community: Competences and Relations with the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, European University Publishing, 1 July 2020, 60 pages.
• BOURDET (Y), Limits and Challenges of Regional Integration in West Africa, published by Sida 2005, Country Economic Report 2005, Policy and Methodology Department: Document adopted by the ECOWAS Ministerial Committee on Agriculture, Environment and Water Resources, Abuja, Nigeria, 12 December 2016.
• Campbell, Keith. Nigerian Foreign Policy and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Two Essays. Braamfontein: South African Institute of International Affairs, 1978
• Cooperation and trade in livestock products in the ECOWAS sub-region. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Joint ECA/FAO, 1980
• Cooperation and trade in food products in the ECOWAS sub-region. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Joint ECA/FAO, 1980
• Corlley, Chiavi. Relative Effects of Public and Private Investment on Growth in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 1973-1990/ Thesis / dissertation / Manuscript, 1995.- Diejomoah, Victor P. & M. A. Iyoha. Industrialization in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational (Nig.), 1980
• Critical Analysis of ECOWAS Policiesin the Agricultural and Industrial Sectors, a study produced by Dalberg and commissioned by Osiwa, 64 pages.
• The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Trade Liberalization Agenda: Papers Presented at the 2nd National Seminar on TLS Kaduna Kaduna Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture, 1992.
• ECOWAS at 40: An Assessment of Progress Towards Regional Integration in West Africa. UNECA – CEA.
• ECOWAS Agricultural Policy (ecowap/CAADP), Strategic Orientation Framework to 2025: Document adopted by the ECOWAS Ministerial Committee on Agriculture, Environment and Water Resources, Abuja, Nigeria, 12 December 2016.
• ECOWAS Agricultural Programme; ECOWAS Industrial Programme; ECOWAS Lagos Trade Liberalization Programme: ECOWAS, 1981
• ECOWAS Environmental Policy, ECOWAS Commission, Buja, Nigeria, Directorate of the Environment, 2008, 48 pages.
• ECOWAS Fund for Accelerated Small-Scale Fisheries. Abuja, Nigeria: Federal Dept. of Fisheries, Project Secretariat, 2000.
• Edeh, Herbert C, The Establishment of an ECOWAS Common Currency: Analysis of the Politics, Economics, and Prospects Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material, 1996
• Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation in West Africa: Proceedings of a Seminar Held in Lomé, Togo, 30 March to 8 April 1983 / Upton: Springfield: The Laboratory; 1984.
• Ewusi, Kodwo. The Prospects for Increasing Ghana’s Manufactured Exports Under ECOWAS Legon: Institute of Statistical, Social, and Economic Research, University of Ghana, 1982.
• Export-Import Bank of India. ECOWAS, A Study of India’s Trade and Investment Potential (ECOWAS). Mumbai: Quest Publications, 2008
• Fajana, F. O. The potential effects of the 1992 European Single Market on ECOWAS Member States. Lagos: Economic Community of West African States, 1991
• Falusi, Abiodun O. Agricultural Production and Trade Problems Arising Out of the Drought Situation in West Africa. Does the ECOWAS treaty have an answer? 1976
• Fashoyin, Tayo Public Policy and Labour Markets in the ECOWAS: A Case Study of the Alien Expulsion Order by Nigeria, 1983 Lagos: Dept. of Industrial Relations and Personnel Management, Faculty of Business Administration, University of Lagos, 1985.
• Francis, David John. Sierra Leone in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Political and Economic Implications. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 1998.
• Francis, David. The Politics of Economic Regionalism: Sierra Leone in ECOWAS. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2001.
• Fuseini-Bart, Theophilus. Free movement of goods in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): Comparisons with the European Economic Community (EEC). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 1988.
• Gasiokwu, Martin U., ECOWAS: Problems of Citizenship and Free Movement / Jos: Mono Expressions, 1998
• Irons, Edward D. & Charlie E. Mahone. Trade and Investment Opportunities with ECOWAS. Atlanta, Ga.: Georgia World Congress Institute, 1982.
• Jebuni, Charles D. International Payments Systems Within ECOWAS Countries Accra-North: Centre for Policy Analysis, 1998.
• Jeter, Sinclair V. & Alexandre Mboukou. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): a regional approach to business and investment in West Africa. Washington, D.C.] Africa Business and Economic Review, 1981.
• Jones, Basil Morris. Growth, convergence, and economic integration in West Africa: the case of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 2001.
• Jow, Kumba. The Socio-Economic Factors at the Root of the Low Implementation Record of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) / Thesis/dissertation/archival manuscript, 1996.
• Kalu, Kalu Ndukwe. Towards Regional Development: A Transactional Analysis of Regional Integration in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 1994.
• Khan, Ahmed S. & Heimo. Mikkola. Sustainable Ocean Development: An Initiative for the Management and Protection of the Marine and Coastal Resources of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Sub-region. Banjul, Gambia: UNIGAM, 2002.
• Kouame, Yao and Cephas Pobi. Situation of Telecommunications in ECOWAS Member States: Lagos Report: Economic Community of West African States, 1980.
• Kpokou, Narcissus. Intra-regional trade within the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1998.

Lagbo, Francis Bliss. The energy crisis: the case of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), with reference to Nigeria, Ghana and Burkina Faso. Ottawa: National Library of Canada = National Library of Canada, 1993.

• Manboah-Rockson, Joseph K. Policy implications of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in regional development. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 2003.
• Masson, Paul R. & Pattillo, Catherine A. Monetary Union in West Africa (ECOWAS) Is It Desirable and How Could it be Achieved? Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2001 (Microform)
• Mattick, Robert E. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Oil, Coal and Geothermal Resources Assessment. [Reston, VA]: U.S. Geological Survey, 1982.
• MAWUTO (T), “The normative evolution of ECOWAS in the field of investment: an analysis of the substantive rules of Ecowic 1”, in International Review of Economic Law 2022/1(t.xxxvi), pages 29 to 54, editions International Association of Economic Law.
• Mazi-Iheme, Chinenye, The Impact of International Cooperation in Education on ECOWAS Nations’ Foreign Educational Policy. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1984.
• Mbi, E. E. Investor’s forum, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): an Overview, 1980.
• Motor Vehicle (Third Party Insurance) Act (ECOWAS Brown Card). Accra: Ghana Pub. Corp. 1986.
• NACANABO (A), Contribution to the implementation of a digital economy taxation in the ECOWAS region, European University Publishing, 10 May 2019, 196 pages.
• Ndoh, Sunday, The Impact of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) on African Trade. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1985.
• Nwachukwu, Ike. Nigeria and ECOWAS since 1985: Towards a Dynamic Regional Integration Enugu: Fourth Dimension Pub. Co., 1991.
• Nyong, Francis Etim Nigeria and ECOWAS: the Prospects for Nigeria’s Role in ECOWAS: Objectives, Opportunities, Problems, Leadership and Policies. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Documents, 1983
• Ogunkola, E. Olawale. An assessment of the viability of a single currency area in ECOWAS. Nairobi: African Economic Research Consortium, 2005
• Ojo, Oladeji O.; Janet.Farooq; & Akin. Ogunpola. Nigeria and ECOWAS: A Study on the Economics of Integration. [Ile-Ife]: Obafemi Awolowo University, 1980.
• Okokon, Africanus Bassey Akaninyene, External Borrowing, Export Promotion, and Import Substitution in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 1967-1977. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Documents d’archives, 1981.
• Okrakene, Joseph Tobore. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): its Political and Economic Dimensions: a Thesis /Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material, 1992.
• Olagbegi, Oladapo John Case Study of Nigeria and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, archival documents, 1990.
• Orimalade, Adeyinka & Roland E. Ubogu, Trade & Development in Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) New Delhi: Vikas, 1984.
• Owoeye, Jide, Nigeria in International Institutions. Ibadan, Oyo State: College Press, 1993
• Owosekun, Akinola Adeniyi, ed. Towards an African Economic Community: (Lessons from the ECOWAS Experience): Proceedings of an International Conference Ibadan: Nigerian Institute for Social and Economic Research, 1986
• Proceedings of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Energy Symposium: Energy for Survival: Freetown, Sierra Leone, November 2-6, 1981, Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1982
• Progress report on the implementation of the ECOWAS Economic Recovery Programme. Lagos ECOWAS Executive Secretariat, 1989
• SANGA (D)) and SEBEGO (M), Economic growth in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) area: sustainability, sustainability and Inclusiveness,/ Africa and Development Vol. 43, No. 2 (2018), pp. 1-34 (34 pages.
• Sarr, Momodou Lamin. Law of the Sea Implications for an ECOWAS Common Fisheries Policy Seattle, Wash.: Institute for Marine Studies, University of Washington, 1979
• Shaw, Timothy M. & Julius Emeka. Okolo. The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994.
• Study on the coordination of transport and communications. Lagos: Economic Community of West African States, 1980
• Study on the harmonization and coordination of West African airline schedules. Addis Ababa: Economic Community of West African States: United Nations, Economic Commission for Africa, Division of Transport, Communications and Tourism: United Nations Development Programme, 1992
• Technical Papers: Symposium on Agricultural Production Incentives in West Africa. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development, 1985.
• Trade Tariffs: Incorporating Political and Economic Information. Abuja: Nigerian Export Promotion Board, 1991-
• Trémolières, Marie. Regional Challenges of West African Migration: African and European Perspectives. Paris: OECD, 2009
• Uche, Chibuike U.: The Politics of Monetary Sector Cooperation Among the Economic Community of West African States Members. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Institute, Robert S. McNamara Fellowship Program, 2001
• Udogwu, Prosper the Impact of Resource Power and Societal Factors on Nigerian foreign Policy Between 1973 and 1985: the Case of ECOWAS. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Documents, 2002
• Umar, Goni Monetary Integration in ECOWAS and Loss of Monetary Policy Independence: A Case Study from Nigeria. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 1992.
• United Nations. Economic Commission for Africa; Development Programme (2021). Impact of the covid-19 pandemic in West Africa. Addis Ababa: © NAKED. CEA. https://repository.uneca.org/handle/10855/47582 .

13. CEMAC Sector Scan

• BIKAI (J. L), NGOMBA BODI (F. G), ONOMO BETSAMA (J) and MUSTAFA TAHER (M), An analysis of the resilience of CEMAC economies through disaggregated data, Sectoral effects of fiscal and monetary policies: what lessons for CEMAC countries? 2021 Thematic Study, 26 pages.
• CEMAC/Economic and Monetary Community of Central African Investment Charter. Yaoundé: Editions SAAGRAPH, 2000.
• Census of Enterprises in all sectors: Industry, Commerce, Banking, Insurance, Other Services. Brazzaville: Central African Customs and Economic Union, Department of Statistics, 1967.
• Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC) Investment and Business Guide. Washington, D.C.: International Business Publications, 2006
• Central African Economic and Monetary Community — IMF Staff Report on Common Policies in Support of Member Countries’ Reform Programs, IMF Report No. 19/215, August 2019, 52 pages.
• Central African Economic and Monetary Community: Report on the Observance of Standards and Codes: FATF Recommendations on Combating Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2006.
• Cowherd, Jerome. Integration of the banking sector and competition in the CEMAC. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2007
• DJAMPIN MABOUL (C) and BITA (C.A), “Export diversification and macroeconomic stability in the CEMAC: a panel analysis with a threshold effect”, Revue “Repères et Perspectives Economiques” [Online], Vol. 7, No. 1 / March 2023, published online on April 11, 2023.
• DRUMMOND (P) NACIF (F), Implications of Oil Inflows for Savings and Reserve Management in the CEMAC. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2007.
• E. Laffiteau, S. J. Edi, Are CEMAC Countries Convergenting? in STATECO N°108, 2014, 14 pages.
• Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2012.
• Economic Commission for Livestock, Meat and Fishery Resources CEBEVIRHA, Sectoral indicators in analysis of statistical indicators of the livestock sectors, 2020 and their evolution in recent years, October 2022, 51 pages.
• Fongod, Edwin Nuvaga. CEMAC Customs Guide / Limbe, Cameroon: Design House, 2002.
• Guide, Anne-Marie. Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC): Selected Issues. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2005
• International Monetary Fund, Central African Economic and Monetary Community, Common Policies in Support of Member Countries’ Reform Programs, IMF Report No. 19/3, December 2019, 80 pages.
• Interstate trade UDEAC, 1975-1981. Bangui: UDEAC, 1980.
• Iossifov, Plamen, Dimitre Milkov, Rafael Portillo & John Wakeman-Linn. The International Financial Crisis and the Global Recession: Impact on the CEMAC Region and Policy Considerations. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2009
• Iossifov, Plamen. Improving Surveillance Across the CEMAC Region. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2009
• Khan, Sunday A. Volatility of resource inflows and economic growth in CEMAC countries. Ottawa: North-South Institute, 2008
• Kitchen, Richard L. & David Sarley. Industrial Efficiency and Policy Reform: Central African Customs and Economic Union (UDEAC). Bradford: Development and Project Planning Centre, University of Bradford, 1991
• Mpatswe, Gaston K., Sampawende J.-A. Tapsoba & Robert C. York. The cyclicality of fiscal policies in the CEMAC region. Washigton, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2011.
• MOUSSONE (E), Market and Investment Potential of the Countries of the Economic and Monetary Community of Africa Power plant (CEMAC), in Magazine; Market & Organizations, ISSUE 14, 2011/2, pages 33 to 56.
• MVONDO (E.T), Ananalysis of the resilience of CEMAC economies through disaggregated data, sectoral convergences, and synchronization of economic cycles in the CEMAC, BEAC, E. T N°02/21-27 pages.
• Ngolali Ngoulou (W. R), Contribution to the study of new integration rules at the CEMAC level. Right. Université Paris Cité, 2019. French.
• Oliva, Maria-Angels. Trade Restriction in the CEMAC Region: The Case of Congo. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2008
• Poplawski-Ribeiro, Marcos, Darlena Tartari & Carlos Caceres. Inflation dynamics in the CEMAC region. Washigton, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2011
• Study of regional transport problems in Central Africa: UDEAC, 1990
• TCHAKOUNTE NJODA (M) and ZOLO EYEA (A. R), International Trade and Informal Employment in the CEMAC Zone, in African Statistical Journal, Issue 13, November 2011, 32 pages.
• Tembunde, P.N. A Brief Study of the UDEAC: Customs Law and Procedure Yaoundé, Cameroon Dept. of Customs, 1975-
• Trade Policy Review: report by the Secretariat, Countries of the Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC). Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2013
• Trevino, Juan P. Oil-Price Boom and Real Exchange Rate Appreciation: Is there Dutch Disease in the CEMAC. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2011
• Tsangarides, Charalambos G. & Jan Kees Matrijn. Trade reform in the CEMAC. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 2007
• Wiegand, Johannes. Fiscal Surveillance in a Petro Zone: the case of the CEMAC / Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, Policy Development and Review Dept, 2004
• WTO Trade Policy Review: CEMAC (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo and Gabon). Geneva: World Trade Organization, 2014.

14. Conflict Prevention, Peace, and Security

• Adibe, Clement. West African Hegemony, Security, and Integration: Nigeria, Ghana and the Transformation of ECOWAS. Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 1994.
• Anigekwu, Wilfred L. Nigeria’s Hegemonic Role in ECOWAS: A Comparative Analysis. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript, 2002.
• Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi. Regional Security Management in West Africa: Ecowas, Ecomog, and Liberia / Copenhagen, Denmark: Centre for Development Research, 1994.
• Aning, Emmanuel Kwesi. Security in the West African Subregion: An Analysis of ECOWAS’ Policies in Liberia. Copenhagen: Institute of Political Science, University of Copenhagen, 1999.
• Bekoe, Dorina Akosua Oduraa & Aida. Mengistu Operationalizing the ECOWAS Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping, and Security. New York: Abuja: International Peace Academy; ECOWAS, 2002.
• Damrosch, Lori F. Enforcing Restraint: Collective Intervention in Internal Conflicts New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1993.
• Deme, Mourtada. Law, Morality, and International Armed Intervention. Hoboken: Taylor & Francis, 2013
• Diouf, Babacar. The Future of Conflict Resolution in Africa and the Role of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Monterey: Naval Postgraduate School, 1998.
• Ero, Comfort and Waheguru Pal Singh Sidhu. Toward a Pax West Africana: building peace in a troubled sub-region New York: International Peace Academy, 2001.
• Fall, Alassane. Shaping Africa’s Future Peacekeepers: Organization Design and Civil-Military Relations Lessons Learned from the West African Peace Force in Liberia. Monterey: Naval Postgraduate School, 1998.
• Florquin, Nicolas, and Eric G. Berman. Armed and Aimless: Armed Groups, Firearms and Human Security in the ECOWAS Region. Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2005
• Francis, David J. Dangers of Co-Deployment: UN Co-operative Peacekeeping in Africa. Burlington: Ashgate Pub., 2004.
• Gandois, Hélène. From the Plough to the Sword: Regionalism in Africa: The Emergence of Regional Security Organizations in Africa: A Comparative Study of ECOWAS and SADC. Saarbrücken, Germany: Lambert Academic Pub, 2009
• Gebe, Boniface Yao. International regulation of the Liberian civil conflict: the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and regional security. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Documents d’archives, 1995.
• Jaye Thomas. ECOWAS and the dynamics of conflict and peacebuilding. Dakar: Codesria, 2011
• Jaye, Thomas Issues of Sovereignty, Strategy, and Security in the Economic Community of West Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003.
• LASSINA (D), ECOWAS in the face of transnational terrorism, Mechanisms and strategies for control, Africa Collection: Public Policy, Security, Defence, l’Harmattan, 13/09/2016, 374 pages.
• Maximenko, Andrei Regional Security and International Integration in West Africa: The Case of Organizational Learning in ECOWAS Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Archival Material, 1996.
• MEYER (A), Preventing Conflicts in Central Africa and ECCAS: Between Ambitions, Challenges and Reality, Report on Central Africa, Institute for Security Studies, Issue 3 | August 2019, 520 pages.
• Mgbeoji, Ikechi Collective Security and the Legality of the ECOWAS Intervention in the Liberian Civil War Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 2001.
• Nsia-Pepra, Kofi Legal Analysis of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) Operations in Liberia and Sierra Leone – Effects and Future. Thesis/dissertation/manuscript archival material, 2001.
• Okoosi, A. T. Global Versus Regional Peacekeeping: a Survey of Nigeria’s Involvement in the ECOWAS ECOMOG Operation in Liberia. Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), 1997.
• POREAU (B), ECOWAS Action – Regionalism and Conflict Prevention in Africa, Harmattan, 1 October 2017, 96 pages.
• Security Council: Central Africa, a sub-region facing multiple and sometimes transnational threats, CS/13829, 4 JUNE 2019.
• Sirleaf, Amos Mohammed. The Role of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in the Liberian Civil Conflict 1980-1997: A Case Study in Conflict Management. Washington, D.C.: A.M. Sirleaf, 2000.
• SOUMAH (H), The New Security Threats in West Africa and the Response of ECOWAS Countries, L’Harmattan, 12 March 2020, 138 pages.
• Vib-Sanziri, Francis. Processes and approaches that Africa should adopt for a more responsive and effective management and resolution of conflicts on the continent. Fort Leavenworth: Army Command and General Staff Coll, 1998.
• Weiss, Thomas George. Beyond UN Subcontracting: Task-Sharing with Regional Security Arrangements and Service-Providing NGOs. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998.

15. Bibliographical Works, Indexes, Tables and Other Reference Tools

• Akisanya, Jayeola. List of articles and documents presented on ECOWAS. Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Ibadan, 1978.
• The CEMAC Investment Charter. Yaoundé: CEMAC, 2000.
• Customs Tariff; Table of Import Duties and Taxes/Customs Tariff; Table of Import Duties and Taxes. Central African Customs and Economic Union. Choisy-le-Roi impimerie de France, 1969.
• ECOWAS Common Statistical Standards and Definitions. Lagos: Economic Community of West African States, 1982.
• ECOWAS National Accounts. Abuja: ECOWAS, 2000.
• ECOWAS Social and Economic Indicators. Abuja, ECOWAS, 2000.
• Igue, Ogunsola John, ECOWAS: Selected Bibliography, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Center for Afroamerican and African Studies, 1984.
• Irele, Modupeola. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): a bibliography and a source. Lagos, Nigeria: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 1990.
• Statistical bulletin. Abuja: ECOWAS, 2000. Statistical bulletin: ECOWAS, 2001.
• Statistics on Production of Principal Crops in ECOWAS Member States, 1980-1986 Lagos, Economic Community of West African States, 1987.
• Table of Liberal Accounting Professionals Approved by the UDEAC/CEMAC. Bangui, CEMAC.
• Trade tariffs in ECOWAS countries. Lagos: The Council, 1991-.