The Amparo Context in Latin American Jurisdiction: An Approach to an Empowering Action

Gloria Hoyos Orrego has a law degree from the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana in Bogota, Colombia. She has a master’s degree in Constitutional Law and Human Rights from the University of Palermo in Buenos Aires and a diploma in Library and Information Management at the University of Social Sciences and Business (UCES) in Buenos Aires, Argentina. For 10 years she worked at the Max von Buch Library of the Universidad de San Andrés in Buenos Aires, where she coordinated the legal reference service; among other tasks. She remains a professor of legal research methodology there and additionally she teaches the same course at the Universidad Torcuato Di Tella. She has been invited to lecture in Argentina and other countries in the region and has been a trainer for specific projects in non-governmental organizations, the judiciary, various corporate databases and teachers’ associations in Argentina.

Ms. Orrego Hoyos is a member of the American Association of Law Librarians and between 2016 and 2019 she worked as part of the Board of Directors of the IALL where she chaired the Committee of Educational Affairs of the institution. She currently serves on the General Secretariat Training and Law at the Public Defender’s Office in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

1. Introduction

Since 1948 and after the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the necessity of a rapid and effective judicial mechanism of human rights protection became a global concern.

Under the influence of Mexican amparo,[1] the right of everyone “to simple and prompt recourse, or any other effective recourse, to a competent court or tribunal for protection against acts that violate his fundamental rights recognized by the constitution or laws of the state concerned or by this Convention, even though such violation may have been committed by persons acting in the course of their official duties,”[2] was included in the American Convention on Human Rights (article 25.1) in 1969.[3]

With this “inter-American purpose”, the writ of amparo was conceived (also called Acción de Tutela, Recurso de Amparo and Juicio de Amparo, among others), inspired in the Mexican amparo which was created with the deep conviction of the need for a procedural instrument to protect the fundamental rights of the governed against the public power, including challenging the constitutionality of laws.

Today is clear that one fundamental aspect in the modernization of the justice system in Latin American countries has been the quantitative and qualitative improvement of the instruments and the constitutional possibilities for the citizen to access the justice. This is particularly relevant considering the lack of access and the corruption in some governments and justice systems in the region.

2. The Writ of Amparo

In the nineteenth century and in the first half of the twentieth century, the habeas corpus was the only specific mechanism of protection of fundamental freedoms. This led to the need for the institution to expand its scope to other rights and fundamental freedoms, to give amplitude to the protection. Thus, the amparo was born, following the Mexican experience. However, the introduction of this action was different in the countries of the Latin America region, and in many cases took more than a century for its incorporation into domestic law.

The writ of amparo was established to ensure the freedoms which were not covered by habeas corpus and habeas data (e.g.,Physical liberty and right to privacy). It does not include other non-jurisdictional mechanisms of human rights protection (e.g., the work of the ombudsman, the action (popular or direct) of unconstitutionality), or any other remedy of which, although eventually protects individual freedoms, the essential purpose or destination is not the direct protection of human rights.

The amparo then stands as the ideal means for the effective protection of constitutional rights violated, regardless of whether the person who produced such violation is a public or private authority. The writ of amparo, like the habeas corpus, may be invoked by any person who believes that any of his/her rights, is being violated. However, one of the great progresses of the amparo in Latin America is that it enables citizens to invoke the action for the violation of any right protected either explicitly or implicitly by the Constitution or by any applicable international treaties.

It is also a very inexpensive or a free action, and in some countries (e.g., Colombia) it does not require the participation of any legal counsel. For all these reasons, it is logical to establish in a procedural level, tight deadlines for the exercise of the action. This time, ranging from 15 to 30 days, counting from the illegal act is executed, it was due to execute, or it has knowledge of it, according to the regulations of each country.

Honduras, Paraguay, Peru, and Costa Rica contemplated 60 days, while Bolivia and Venezuela six months. Colombia establishes the possibility to exercise the action at any time just as Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Mexico.

The action must fulfill four requirements for its merit. In first place, there must be an act or omission by a public or private authority. The acts or omissions may contain positive or negative events. In the case of the public authority, they can come from any branch of the government. This is a high point regarding amparo’s validity against judicial decisions. However, in most countries, and given the exceptional nature of the action, this possibility is refused since there are other actions to attack statements that are considered unfair.

Secondly, the lesion must be actual and imminent. This is aimed primarily because the action was designed to protect the constitutional right timely, and that is why it has been added the requirement to the rights remain violated at the time of issuance of the judgment.

In third place, it is required that the arbitrariness or illegality becomes manifest. The amparo does not seek the effect of depriving any act of the authority that appears vitiated. The writ will proceed only when the act of the authority is blatantly arbitrary or illegal.

Finally, there should be no other mechanism to file the claim. The writ of amparo is exceptional and it will proceed only in the absence of any other mechanism (jurisdictional or non-jurisdictional) appropriate to the protection of constitutional rights of freedom.

The description of amparo as a judicial mechanism in the context of the organization of justice differs from country to country. This means that according to the procedural law of each country, the amparo can be ensured through a court action or through a procedural remedy. Nevertheless, although it has different expressions in the region and in many cases different procedural venues, the most appropriate terminology would be “writ”. The amparo conforms the appropriate procedural route to obtain, within a restricted area of recognition, the protection of a right unknown, although it is usually designated as a resource.

While the origin of the amparo is shared by almost all the nations in the Latin American region, its incorporation into domestic law varies, not only chronologically, but also in the forms and procedure for each country.

Here is an overview of regulatory requirements of amparo action in Latin American countries.

Country	Nomen Iuris	Year	Article in Constitution	Amparo Jurisdiction	Observations
Argentina	Amparo	1957-1958	Art. 43, Constitution of Argentina Nation (1994)	Supreme Court hears the amparo of under review as second or third instance. Exceptional cases may go directly.	Establishes collective amparo. Created through the jurisprudence.
Bolivia	Amparo	1967	Art. 19 Political Constitution of Bolivia (2009)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Heavily influenced by Argentina´s amparo.
Brazil	Mandado de seguranca	1967	Art. 5°, LXIX y LXX Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil (1988)	Supreme Court hears the amparo of under review as second or third instance. Exceptional cases may go directly.	Establishes collective amparo.
Chile	Recurso de protección	1980	Art. 20 Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile (2005)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	“Recurso de amparo” in Chile, corresponds to the figure of habeas corpus, and the “Recurso de Protección” shares the legal nature of amparo.
Colombia	Acción de tutela	1991	Art. 86 Political Constitution of Colombia (1991)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Proceeds against acts and omissions of authority or private, promoted before any judge or jurisdiction. Establishes collective amparo.
Costa Rica	Amparo	1949	Art. 48 Political Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica (1949)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court. Direct Access.	Amparo is other than habeas data and habeas corpus
Dominican Republic	Amparo	1999	No specific constitutional provision.	Supreme Court hears the amparo of under review as second or third instance.	Created through the jurisprudence. The judgment establishes an expeditious procedure for the amparo action.
Ecuador	Acción de protección	1967	Art. 88 Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador (2008)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Amparo is other than habeas data and habeas corpus
El Salvador	Amparo	1886	Art. 247 Constitution of El Salvador (1983)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court. Direct Access.	Amparo is other than habeas data and habeas corpus
Guatemala	Amparo	1921	Art. 265 Constitution of Guatemala (1993)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	First country to introduce a constitutional court in Latin America by establishing autonomous Constitutional Court in 1965
Honduras	Amparo	1894	Art. 183 Constitution of Honduras (1982)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance. Exceptional cases may go directly.	Amparo is other than habeas data and habeas corpus
Mexico	Amparo	1857	Art. 103 y 107 Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (2005)	Supreme Court hears the amparo of under review as second or third instance. Exceptional cases may go directly.	Establishes the Amparo Omnicomprensivo, whereby protects all the rights and fundamental freedoms and, in general, all the constitutional order of the nation.
Nicaragua	Amparo	1894	Art. 45 y 188 Constitution of Nicaragua (1995)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Amparo is other than habeas data and habeas corpus
Panama	Amparo	1941	Art. 50 Constitution of Panama (2005)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.
Paraguay	Amparo	1967	Art. 134 Constitution of Paraguay (1992)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Heavily influenced by Argentina´s amparo.
Peru	Amparo	1979	Art. 200.2 Constitution of Peru (1993)	Constitutional Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Habeas corpus fulfilled the functions of protection and was gradually expanding its natural scope of protection not only for the protection of personal freedom, but also for other fundamental rights.
Uruguay	Amparo	1988	No specific constitutional provision. In National Law N°16.011 (19/12/1988)	Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	Article 72 of the Constitution enables the law that enshrines the protection.
Venezuela	Amparo	1961	Art. 27 Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (1999)	Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court hears the amparo under review as second or third instance.	The procedure of amparo is oral, public, brief, free and unencumbered by formalities.

3. The Process/Trial of Amparo

The jurisprudence has systematized the fundamental rights of constitutional protection. Thus, fundamental rights that are recognized by the amparo writ are not only constitutional but also international and its source can be the law or even the case law.

This means a transition from the traditional rule of law to rule of law based on the Constitutional precepts. In this manner, the amparo process fulfills the protection of the individual right, as well as the institutional values in which this constitutional process is based: tasks that are fulfilled by the Constitutional Courts or reserved for the Supreme Courts, ultimately, as supreme interpreters of the Constitution and Guardians of fundamental rights.

The contemporary development of constitutional justice around the Constitutional Courts or Supreme Courts has made the amparo process the best indicator to characterize the state of the protection of fundamental rights in the Latin American region. Thus, the Constitution and the Procedural Law are placed in a tension line based on the subjective protection of fundamental rights and the objective protection of the Constitution. This tension in which the constitutional judge adopts diverse positions is evidenced in the jurisprudential praxis and the challenges of some central issues of amparo in countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, among other countries.

Object of protection (protection of fundamental rights): The purpose of the amparo is to protect violated fundamental rights. For this reason, the object of constitutional protection takes different forms of conceiving the rights from their “double character” as subjective rights and as elements of an objective order.

• Wide Protection. In Argentina, any right of legal, administrative, or international origin, recognized in the Constitution, is a matter for amparo. This protection reaches individual and collective rights. In Peru, any right in the constitutional text is protected by the protection of civil, political, and economic rights, nominated or unnamed, legal, or administrative configuration and always, the rights derived from international treaties. In the same way, the Constitution of 2010 of the Dominican Republic recognizes the amparo in similar terms to the Argentine or Peruvian model.
• Intermediate Protection. In Venezuela and Ecuador, the protection of the amparo covers rights enshrined in the Constitution and international treaties, but not those created by a legal norm. In Colombia, the tutela action protects fundamental rights in a residual and subsidiary manner.
• Limited Protection. In Brazil, the mandato de segurança protects only constitutional rights when they are violated by an illegal act or omission or come from the abuse of power. Although the Constitution recognizes the mandate of collective security, there is a strong controversy about the judicial enforceability of social rights and the role of the judiciary in protecting them.[4] In Mexico, the amparo trial protects the so-called “individual guarantees of equality”, freedom, legal security and property rights based on the dignity of the people. In this way, the amparo trial fulfills the principal function of controlling constitutionality, in the measure that individuals are guarded in the relations between the governed and the state and the authorities.

Object of Control (injurious act): In every amparo process, it is necessary to delimit not only the fundamental rights violated, but also to determine the injurious act object of constitutional control. This control can also be classified into 3 types:

• Wide Control. In the Argentine case, it covers any act or omission of public authority (understood as the public servant in the exercise of the public function, the legislative power, or the judicial power) or any particular in position of power. In Peru, the amparo action is also against the act or omission of any authority, official or person that violates fundamental rights. Prima facie does not fit against legal norms or judicial decisions emanating from a regular process; but it does proceed against judicial acts (final decisions) if the content of the rights is directly protected in the Constitution. In this matter, it is similar to Venezuela, Guatemala, Honduras and Panama, with the exception that in these countries the amparo writ is expressly excluded against the decisions of the Supreme Court of Justice. It also proceeds against acts of government (including discretionary powers such as pardon or declaration of a state of emergency by the executive power), parliamentary acts and private acts (especially asymmetrical links between labor, health, consumer, etc.). In the same way in Colombia, the acción de tutela proceed against any act or omission of any public authority (administrative authority, judicial acts) or private individuals (who performs public function, when the claimant is in a situation of subordination, against media, when the conduct of the individual seriously and directly affects the collective interest)
• Intermediate Control. In Mexico, any voluntary and conscious, both negative or positive event, developed by a state body (decision or execution), whether against unconstitutional laws, judicial decisions, and administrative acts and resolutions. However, private individuals cannot seek protection against acts of other private individuals.
• Limited Control. In Brazil, the mandato de segurança does not apply against acts of individuals, judicial decisions, laws, bills, or administrative acts that have suspensive effect.

Parts in the process (legitimation): Ordinarily the process of amparo has meant that the owner of the action is the same as the owner of the right violated, however sometimes the constitutional judge in an extraordinary way can grant legitimacy to other subjects.

• Wide Legitimation. In Colombia, any natural or juridical person affected by their fundamental rights (even if they are minors or foreigners) may bring the guardianship action directly or through a judicial representative. The indigenous communities, the Ombudsman, the Municipal Representatives and in some cases the amici curiae are also legitimate agents of those who cannot promote their own defense. In Peru, given the flexible character of the amparo writ, not only the aggrieved, but also third parties (natural or juridical, Peruvian or foreign) are legitimized, especially in the case of diffuse rights. In Argentina, the amparo writ is a bilateral process between the State and private individuals, with active legitimacy of any person holding the violated right, the Ombudsman (for collective or individual rights) and legislators (accrediting the concrete affectation of a right). There is also the figure of the amici curiae.
• Limited Legitimation. In Brazil, the action can be brought by natural persons (national or foreign) and legal/juridical person (public or private) in defense of certain constitutional rights (does not apply to diffuse rights). The 1988 Constitution recognizes the legitimacy of action to political parties with representation in the National Congress, trade union organizations and the Public Ministry.

Judgment (scope of judgment): The purpose of the amparo judgment is to protect the fundamental rights violated, thus, the judicial pronouncement is aimed at overriding the injurious act. According to their purpose, the sentences of amparo can be:

• Wide Protection. In Peru, the purpose of the sentence in principle is not compensatory and only seeks the replacement of the right to its state prior to the violation. In Colombia, the verdict of the tutelas’ judge orders that the defendant acts or refrain from doing something immediately, the sentence is not compensatory in nature unless the person concerned has no other judicial means.
• Intermediate Protection. In the Mexican amparo trial, judgments only protect the case demanded and produce effects that depend on the kind of sentence that has been dictated. In Brazil, the mandato de segurança is deemed immutable, but if it were to the contrary, the security mandate will not prevent the aggrieved person from being able to protect their rights and their respective patrimonial acts.

4. Final Thoughts

Even knowing the shortcomings of the action, the amparo stands as the mechanism with greater amplitude in jurisdictional protection of fundamental rights and freedoms in Latin American countries, expanding globally with similar scope and effectiveness. Although the amparo shares many things in the region, the overall analysis of the different situations prevailing in different countries support the view that, in practice, national systems differ widely. That is why they have created a range of issues in the implementation of constitutional jurisdiction of the amparo and its appropriate guarantees.

In this regard, in the context of the analysis, it is logical that each country thinks and works on the necessary reforms and adjustments in the field of amparo writ. The procedural nature of the amparo has in its constitutional, legislative, or jurisprudential configuration, a conception of the Constitution and of the process, which does not lack permanent tension between politics and law. The challenges of the amparo in a process of democratic transition, such as that of the Latin American region, has a different nature, being directly linked to the democratic problems of origin in each country.

The amparo writ ends in the constitutional and legal norms, leaving to the judge the formalistic work of the application of these. However, the amparo writ is also understood as a way of achievement of these laws through the juridical argumentation, which can establish procedural rules, by means of the procedural autonomy that the judge develops creatively.

In some countries, the amparo writ can be conceived as a procedural resource dependent on ordinary processes and, in the final analysis, of civil procedural codes, or in other countries, it is understood as an autonomous judicial process with special or autonomous norms. For some it may be of a unilateral nature and of subjective protection of the fundamental rights; And for others their nature may be a bilateral process of an objective nature provided. There is a relationship of interdependence between the rights of freedom and the powers of the authority or other individuals, as directed to the protection of constitutional values.

In several of the countries analyzed, the discussion is already proposed. In Argentina, the use of amparo as a human rights protection is not problematic when it comes to protect a citizen from harmful acts. However, the use of amparo against harmful omissions is still disputed in the legal academy. Additionally, and even knowing the purpose of the protection of constitutional rights, in all the amparo cases, to bring the action is necessary that it meets, from the beginning, with all the conditions of proceeding. Otherwise, it may not be filed.

In Bolivia, the rights protected by the writ of amparo are even more extensive than in Argentina, protecting not only civil and political rights, but also economic, social and cultural rights. The amparo does not recognize exemptions, privileges, or hierarchies. Meanwhile, in Colombia, all judges have jurisdiction to hear the tutela. This is an important difference with other countries in the region, owing to its simplicity and accessibility. It may be filed even by an informal agent. These characteristics make the tutela, an agile and dynamic action that provides effective and timely protection to the constitutional rights. Nevertheless, this feature of efficiency and protection has brought in practice, an excessive use of the action and congestion in the Colombian judicial system.

Very similar to Colombia, Chile shows more informality, and the amparo (named recurso de protección) can be filed by any natural or legal person affected, including collective entities—without legal personality—or any other person in its name. The amparo cannot be understood as a unique process or substitute for other processes. However, stands as a short and concentrated to be preferential, since the type of rights at stake.

5. Suggested Bibliography by Country

Argentina

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Orgaz, Alfredo. 1961. El recurso de amparo; comentario a los casos “Siri” y “Kot.”. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Depalma.
• Diáz Solimine, Omar Luis. 2003. Juicio de amparo. Buenos Aires: Hammurabi.
• Rojas de Anezin, Ana María. 2001. Amparo: análisis y jurisprudencia. Córdoba, República Argentina: Alveroni Ediciones.
• Morello, Augusto Mario, and Carlos A. Vallefin. 1995. El amparo: regimen procesal. La Plata: Liberia Editora Platense.
• García Morelos, Gumesindo. 1998. El amparo hábeas corpus: estudio comparativo México-Argentina. México: ABZ Editores.
• Quiroga Lavié, Humberto. 1998. El amparo colectivo. Buenos Aires: Rubinzal-Culzoni Editores.
• Gil Domínguez, Andrés. 2002. Constitución, emergencia y amparo. Buenos Aires: Ad-Hoc.
• Bidart Campos, Germán José. 1961. Derecho de amparo. [Buenos Aires]: Ediar.
• Sbdar, Claudia Beatriz, and Raúl Canosa Usera. 2003.Amparo de derechos fundamentales. Buenos Aires: Ciudad Argentina.
• Carranza Torres, Luis R. 1998. Práctica del amparo: doctrina y jurisprudencia: apéndice normativo. Córdoba: Alveroni Ediciones.
• Fix-Zamudio, Héctor, and Eduardo Ferrer Mac-Gregor. 2006. El derecho de amparo en el mundo. México, D.F.: Editorial Porrúa.
• Aberastury, Pedro. 1999. La protección constitucional del ciudadano: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica y Venezuela. Buenos Aires: Ciedla.
• Manili, Pablo Luis. 2005. Derecho procesal constitucional. Ciudad de Buenos Aires: Editorial Universidad.
• Courtis, C., & Abramovich, V. (2014). Apuntes sobre la exigibilidad judicial de los derechos sociales.
• Segado, F. F. (2016). Allan R. Brewer-Carias: Comparative Constitutional Law Essays, Lectures and Courses (1985-2011). Anuario Iberoamericano de Justicia Constitucional, (20), 645-651.
• Acosta, M. (2016). El Estado argentino y el acceso a la información pública, 2003-2016 (artículos).
• Sabsay, D. A. (2014). EL “Amparo Collectivo” de la Constitucion Argentina y su Interpretacion Jurisprudencial Expansiva. Treinta Anos de Jurisdiccion Constitucional en el Peru.
• Yupanqui, S. B. A. (2015). El proceso de amparo en el Perú: antecedentes, desarrollo normativo y regulación vigente. THĒMIS-Revista de Derecho, (67), 293-307.
• Canales, P. H. (2017). La Reforma Judicial Peruana: Una Cuestión Política. Derecho & Sociedad, (15), 96-106.
• Sagüés, N. P. (1995). Acción de amparo. Astrea.
• Rincón, M. A. G. (2018). Mecanismos de protección de los derechos fundamentales en las personas de los sectores lgbti: la acción de tutela en Colombia y la acción de amparo en Argentina. NUEVOS PARADIGMAS DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES LATINOAMERICANAS, (17).
• Adre, G. R. (2018, October). El amparo en la justicia argentina. La vía idónea para el reconocimiento de los derechos de los ANH?. In Derecho Animal. Forum of Animal Law Studies (Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 135-150).
• Haro, R. (2008). A medio siglo de la creación de la acción de amparo en la República Argentina. Anuario Iberoamericano de Justicia Constitucional, (12).
• Peluffo, M. L. (2007). Las acciones ambientales en el derecho argentino. Amparo ambiental y acción popular. Díkaion, 16.

Colombia

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Salazar Villalba, L. M., & Cadena Moreno, J. A. (2022). La acción de tutela comparada con otros procedimientos de amparo establecidos en América Latina.
• Ferrer Mac-Gregor, Eduardo. 2010. Acción de tutela y derecho procesal constitucional. Bogotá, D.C., Colombia: Doctrina y Ley.
• Quinche Ramírez, Manuel Fernando. 2007. Vías de hecho: acción de tutela contra providencias. Bogotá, D.C.: Editorial Universidad del Rosario.
• Mürrle Rojas, Anne Marie, and Juan Pablo Gonzalez Mejia. 1992. Características esenciales de la acción de tutela. Santafé de Bogotá: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas.
• Correa Henao, Néstor Raúl. 2001. Derecho procesal de la acción de tutela. Bogotá, D.C., Colombia: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Facultad de Ciencias Jurídicas.
• García Villegas, Mauricio, and María Isabel Borrero. 1997.Justicia constitucional y acción de tutela. Santa Fe de Bogotá: Facultad de Derecho, Universidad de los Andes.
• Parra Guzmán, Mario Fernando, and Eduardo Andrés Velandia Canosa. 2000. Tutela jurisdiccional de los derechos fundamentales. Santafé de Bogotá: Ediciones Doctrina y Ley.
• Camargo, Pedro Pablo. 1994. Manual de la acción de tutela. Santafé de Bogotá, D.C., Colombia: Ediciones Jurídica Radar.
• Ortega Ribero, Germán. 1996. ABC de acción de tutela: guía práctica y jurisprudencia. Sante Fé de Bogotá, Colombia: Temis.
• Osuna Patiño, Nestor Ivan. 1998. Tutela y amparo: derechos protegidos. Bogotá, Colombia: Universidad Externado de Colombia.
• Nisimblat Murillo, Nattan. 2009. Principios del proceso para la acción de tutela. Bogotá: Corporación Universitaria de Ciencia y Desarrollo.
• Garavito, C. A. R. (2016). Globalización, reforma judicial y Estado de derecho en Colombia y América Latina: el regreso de los programas de derecho y desarrollo. IUSTA, 1(24).
• Zimerman, S. (2016). El tratamiento judicial de los reclamos indígenas: el rol de la Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación. Revista Electrónica Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas y Sociales AL Gioja, (4).
• Mejía Lozano, A. N. (2015). La acción de tutela: ¿un mecanismo de protección constitucional o un recurso extraordinario? (Bachelor’s thesis).
• Restrepo Tamayo, J. F., & Vergara Cardona, R. (2019). Acción de tutela contra sentencias de tutela: una manifestación de la constitucionalización del derecho jurisprudencial en Colombia. Estudios constitucionales, 17(2), 53-90.
• Giraldo, F. Y. G., Alzáte, E. G., Escobar, F. A. G., & Castillo, J. C. M. Estado del arte: efectividad de la acción de tutela para garantizar el derecho a la salud en Colombia, 2016–2021.
• Jiménez, D. M. H. (2019). Acción de Tutela contra providencias judiciales: elementos, condiciones y crítica. Academia & Derecho, (18), 275-333.
• Leal, A. (2021). La acción de tutela en Colombia. Aspectos conceptuales y procesales. Revista” Cuadernos Manuel Giménez Abad”, (22), 134-153.
• Montenegro, J. (2020). Teoría del derecho y acción de tutela. Revista Derecho, 1-23.
• Quemba-Rodríguez, D. A. (2021). La acción de tutela electrónica nuevo mecanismo para la descongestión judicial en Colombia año 2021.
• Rodas Malca, A., & Castillo Rivera, R. E. (2020). El proceso de amparo en el derecho constitucional comparado caso: Chile, Colombia y Perú.

Honduras

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Honduras. 1995. Ley de amparo. Tegucigalpa, Hond: Graficentro Editores.
• Flores Valeriano, Enrique. 2006. La justicia constitucional en Honduras. Tegucigalpa: Litografia Lopez.
• Hernández Espinoza, Juan Arnaldo. 2003. Pareceres y paremias: dictámenes y sentencias sobre recursos de amparos … habeas corpus. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: O.I.M. Editorial.
• Molina V., Juan R. 1976. Recursos contra el abuso de poder: tesis. Tegucigalpa, D.C., Honduras: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Facultad de Ciencias Jurídias y Sociales.
• Martin, A. (Ed.). (2014). Justicia constitucional, derechos humanos y democracia en América Latina (No. 66). U. Externado de Colombia.
• Peri, L. (2016). El derecho a la privacidad digital. Análisis de los marcos legales de Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua. Cuaderno Jurídico y Político, 2(5), 15-31.
• Gómez Bueso, F. D. (2006). El derecho de amparo en Honduras conforme a la nueva ley sobre justicia constitucional.
• Bueso, F. D. G. (2005). El derecho de amparo en Honduras. Foro constitucional iberoamericano, (10), 145-155.
• Rosales, M. J. C. (2018). La Acción de Amparo en Honduras, Visión hacía una Protección Judicial Efectiva. La Revista de Derecho, 39, 61-74.
• Rosales, C., & José, M. (2019). La acción de amparo en Honduras: paradigma de la protección constitucional contra actos de particulares. Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de México, 69(275-2), 699-726.

Bolivia

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Bolivia. 1971. Jurisprudencia en materia de “amparo” constitucional. Cochabamba, Bolivia: [Editorial Universitaria].
• Castellanos Trigo, Gonzalo. 2007. Hábeas corpus y amparo constitucional en Bolivia: jurisprudencia constitucional actualizada. Sucre, Bolivia: [s.n.].
• Apaza Cossio, David. 2004. Amparo constitucional. Oruro, Bolivia: Latinas Editores.
• Ramos M., Juan. 2005. Recursos constitucionales: habeas corpus, amparo constitucional, hábeas data y reformas constitucionales. [Bolivia]: Academia Boliviana de Estudios Constituconales.
• Defensor del Pueblo (Bolivia). 2003. Recursos constitucionales. La Paz, Bolivia: s.n.
• Castañón Barrientos, Carlos. 1979. Guía práctica de los procedimientos constitucionales: habeas corpus, amparo constitucional, inconstitucionalidad. La Paz: Editorial Los Amigos del Libro.
• Arce Zaconeta, Héctor Enrique. 2003. Recursos constitucionales. La Paz, Bolivia: H.E. Arce Z.
• Escobar Herbas, Victor Hugo. 2004. Justicia ordinaria vs. justicia constitucional. La Paz, Bolivia: Impresiones Quality, S.R.L.
• Pérez Tremps, Pablo (Universidad Carlos III de Madrid), and Cardozo Daza, Richard Eddy. 2008. El proceso de amparo en Bolivia. Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (España).
• Castellanos Trigo, Gonzalo. 2007. Hábeas corpus y amparo constitucional en Bolivia: jurisprudencia constitucional actualizda. Sucre, Bolivia: Talleres Graficos “Gaviota del Sur”.
• Vargas Lima, A. E. (2015). Codigo Procesal Constitucional de Bolivia: Doctrina, Juresprudencia Constitucional y Legislacion Comparada. Estudios constitucionales, 13(1), 431-444.
• Storini, C. (2017). Las garantías de los derechos en las constituciones de Bolivia y Ecuador. Foro Revista de Derecho, (14), 103-138.
• VILLARROEL ROJAS, C. G. (2022). INSEGURIDAD JURIDICA DE LA ACCION DE AMPARO CONSTITUCIONAL.
• CAYO PEÑARRIETA, M. I. J. A. E. L. (2020). VULNERACIÓN DE LAS COMPETENCIAS DEL TRIBUNAL CONSTITUCIONAL PLURINACIONAL BOLIVIANO EN ACCIONES DE AMPARO.
• López, B. W. A. Notas sobre la acción de cumplimiento en Bolivia. EL PROCESO DE CUMPLIMIENTO EN LA ACTUALIDAD.
• Cervantes, F. C. (2022). La nueva perspectiva de la acción de amparo en Bolivia: Referencias al recurso de amparo español (Doctoral dissertation, Universitat d’Alacant-Universidad de Alicante).

Chile

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Salazar Villalba, L. M., & Cadena Moreno, J. A. (2022). La acción de tutela comparada con otros procedimientos de amparo establecidos en América Latina.
• Aberastury, Pedro, and Humberto Nogueira A. 2000.Acciones constitucionales de amparo y protección: realidad y prospectiva en Chile y América Latina. Talca: Editorial Universidad de Talca.
• Caffarena de Jiles, Elena. 1957. El recurso de amparo frente a los regímenes de emergencia.
• Paillas, Enrique. 1990. El recurso de protección ante el derecho comparado. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.
• Tavolari Oliveros, Raúl. 1995. Habeas corpus: recurso de amparo. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.
• Errazuriz Gatica, Juan Manuel, and Miguel Otero A. 1989.Aspectos procesales del recurso de protección. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.
• Lira Herrera, Sergio. 1990. El recurso de protección: naturaleza jurídica, doctrina, jurisprudencia, derecho comparado. Santiago, Chile: Alborada.
• Paillas, Enrique. 2002. El recurso de protección ante el derecho comparado: una acción en busca de una justicia rápida y eficaz. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.
• Verdugo Johnston, Pamela. 1988. El recurso de protección en la jurisprudencia. Santiago-Chile: Editorial Jurídica Ediar-ConoSur.
• Gómez Bernales, Gastón. 2005. Derechos fundamentales y recursos de protección. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Diego Portales, Escuela de Derecho.
• Soto Kloss, Eduardo. 1982. El recurso de protección: orígenes, doctrina y jurisprudencia. Santiago: Editorial Jurídica de Chile.
• Egaña, J. L. C. (2015). El control constitucional de los actos legislativos como avance y futuro del constitucionalismo. Revista de Derecho Público, (63), Págs-428.
• Araya, R. G., & von der Hundt, M. D. (2014). Comentarios de jurisprudencia de la Corte Suprema y el Tribunal Constitucional sobre derechos humanos de las personas migrantes durante el año 2013. Anuario de Derechos Humanos, (10), Págs-139.
• Rodas Malca, A., & Castillo Rivera, R. E. (2020). El proceso de amparo en el derecho constitucional comparado caso: Chile, Colombia y Perú.
• Delgado, S., & Alanna, N. (2019). Acción de amparo constitucional penal, naturaleza y análisis jurisprudencial (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Finis Terrae (Chile) Facultad de Derecho).

Brasil

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Cretella Júnior, José. 1989. Os “writs” na constituição de 1988: mandado de segurança, mandado de segurança coletivo, mandado de injunção, habeas data, habeas corpus, ação popular. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitaria.
• Xavier, Flavia da Silva, and José Antonio Savaris. 2011. Manual dos recursos nos juizados especiais federais. Curitiba, Paraná, Brasil: Juruá Editora.
• Salem Neto, José, and Rafael Rossignolli Delamano. 2011. Mandado de segurança: reflexos da EC n. 45: doutrina, jurisprudência e prática. São Paulo, SP, Brasil: LTr 75.
• Fernandes, Bernardo Gonçalves. 2010. Remédios constitucionais: mandado de segurança individual e coletivo, mandado de injunção, habeas data, ação popular e habeas corpus na doutrina e na jurisprudência do STJ e do STF. Salvador: JusPODIVM.
• Silva, Amaury. 2010. O novo mandado de segurança: comentários à lei n° 12.016, de 07 de agosto de 2009: disciplina o mandado de segurança individual e coletivo. Leme, SP: J.H. Mizuno.
• Tavares, André Ramos. 2010. Curso de direito constitucional. São Paulo: Saraiva.
• Minaverry, C. M. (2014). Legal analysis about drinking water quality service in Buenos Aires. Revista Ambiente & Água, 9(1), 173-183.
• Cesar, P. N. (2014). Estudo comparativo sobre a acción de tutela, no Direito colombiano, e o mandado de segurança individual, no Direito brasileiro. Revista Direito, Estado e Sociedade, (30).
• Almeida, B. C. C. D. (2010). Mandado de segurança: breve histórico, partes e legitimidade passiva.
• LUCENA, J. A. D. (2017). Mandado de segurança coletivo: limites da legitimidade ativa dos partidos políticos e tutela dos direitos difusos no âmbito da lei 12.016/2009.
• de Araujo, N. N. (2013). QUESTÕES POLÊMICAS DOUTRINÁRIAS E JURISPRUDÊNCIAIS SOBRE O MANDADO DE SEGURANÇA. Revista Jurídica, 2(17), 12-19.

Ecuador

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Chiriboga Z., Galo A. 2001. La acción de amparo y de hábeas data: garantías de los derechos constitucionales y su nueva realidad jurídica. Quito, Ecuador: Asociación Americana de Jurístas.
• Chiriboga Z., Galo A. 2001. La acción de amparo y de hábeas data: garantías de los derechos constitucionales y su nueva realidad jurídica. Quito, Ecuador: Asociación Americana de Jurístas.
• Pérez, Efraín. 2011. Esquema de la acción extraordinaria de protección en las sentencias de la Corte Constitucional. Quito: Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones.
• Ecuador. 2004. Prontuario de resoluciones del Tribunal Constitucional. 2, Acción de amparo. Quito: Corporación de Estudios y Publicaciones.
• Oyarte Martínez, Rafael. 2006. La acción de amparo constitucional: jurisprudencia, dogmática y doctrina. Quito, Ecuador: Fundación Andrade & Asociados.
• Cueva Carrión, Luis. 2010. Acción constitucional ordinaria de protección. Ecuador: Ediciones Cueva Carrión.
• Molina Calahorrano, C. K., & Romero Araujo, J. P. (2017). Indebida aplicación de la normativa constitucional del juez de primera instancia, al negar una acción de protección en casos particulares.
• Chamba, C., & Del Carmen, G. M. (2017). Acción de protección constitucional en favor de los derechos ancestrales indígenas en cuanto al uso de las tierras agrícolas.
• Acosta Reinoso, I. P. (2017). La declaratoria de la admisibilidad de la acción de protección frente al derecho a la tutela efectiva (Bachelor’s thesis).
• Riera Robles, G. E. (2017). La reparación económica en la reparación integral dentro de la acción de protección en Ecuador (Bachelor’s thesis).
• Castillo, J. R. P. (2022). La acción de protección en el Ecuador: sus orígenes. RECIMUNDO, 6(2), 391-401.

Guatemala

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Rodríguez-Cerna Rosada, Carlos Rafael. 2005. El amparo guatemalteco y las verdaderas reformas que clama su justicia constitucional. Guatemala: Editorial Orión.
• Sierra González, José Arturo. 2004. Propuestas para reducir los efectos dilatorios que provoca el abuso del amparo judicial. Guatemala: Fundación Myrna Mack.
• Guatemala. 2004. Incidencias procesales: acciones de amparo, inconstitucionalidad de leyes en casos concretos. Guatemala: [Corte de Constitucionalidad].
• Guzmán Hernández, Martín Ramón. 2004. El amparo fallido. Guatemala: Publicación de la Corte de Constitucionalidad.
• Vásquez Martínez, Edmundo. 1998. “El proceso de amparo en Guatemala”. Boletín Mexicano De Derecho Comparado. 3191: 221-259.
• Peri, L. (2016). El derecho a la privacidad digital. Análisis de los marcos legales de Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua. Cuaderno Jurídico y Político, 2(5), 15-31.

México

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• México, and Sergio Alonso Rodríguez Narváez. 2012. Los derechos humanos y su protección por el Poder Judicial de la Federación. México: Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación, Coordinación de Compilación y Sistematización de Tesis.
• Alcala H.N. 2010. “La acción constitucional de protección en chile y la acción constitucional de amparo en México”. Ius Et Praxis. 16 (1): 219-286.
• García Morelos, Gumesindo. 2010. El proceso de acción de inconstitucionalidad. Azcapotzalco, México, D.F.: UBIJUS.
• Lancaster- Jones, Carlos María Enrigue. 2006. Manual de exepciones civiles. México: Porrúa.
• Ruíz Martínez, Ismael. 2003. La acción del amparo. Ciudad Juárez, Chih: Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez.
• Armengol, C. M. V. (2017). La Carta Magna mexicana en su centenario y el constitucionalismo Latinoamericano. Notas de un estudio comparado. REVISTA IUS (México), 10(38).
• Maraniello, P., & Parisi, N. S. (2016). El constitucionalismo social en la Constitución mexicana y su vasta influencia en el derecho argentino. Revista IUS, 10(38), 0-0.
• Ivanega, M. M. (2017). Constitucion y Derecho Administrativo. Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de México, 67(267), 189-2014.
• Zapata Marín, Á. D. (2014). Las omisiones legislativas y el juicio de amparo, un análisis desde la perspectiva de los derechos humanos a la luz del derecho de acceso a la justicia.
• Macedo Velázquez, P., Olvera-García, J., Morales Reynoso, M. D. L., & URIBE, E. (2015). DEFENSA DE DERECHOS FUNDAMENTALES EN CONTRA DE ACTOS DE PARTICULARES EN MÉXICO.

Perú

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Bello, B. M. (2004). Etnicidad y ciudadanía en América Latina: la acción colectiva de los pueblos indígenas (Vol. 79). United Nations Publications.
• Galli, C. (2013). El malestar de la democracia. Fondo de cultura económica.
• Ortiz, D. A. (2015). Lectura N° 09: El proceso constitucional de amparo en el Perú. PJ.
• Jumpa, A. P. (2015). Barreras de Acceso a la Justicia, y la Justicia Comunal como Alternativa en el Perú. Derecho & Sociedad, (38), 360-368.
• Belaunde, D. G. (2015). Los orígenes del Habeas Corpus. Derecho PUCP, (31), 48-59.
• López, A. C. (2017). Reformando la Constitución y conformando a su defensor. Formas de composición del Tribunal Constitucional. Derecho & Sociedad, (22), 75-85.
• Dueñas Perez, R. A. (2017). Una adecuada organización de los órganos jurisdiccionales en la justicia constitucional desde los principios del buen gobierno para mejorar el amparo en el Perú.
• Rodas Malca, A., & Castillo Rivera, R. E. (2020). El proceso de amparo en el derecho constitucional comparado caso: Chile, Colombia y Perú.
• Arroyo, C. L. (2015). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. IUS ET VERITAS, 20(41), 112-126.

Dominican Republic

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Brewer-Carías, A. R. (2014). Sobre la justiciabilidad de los derechos sociales. Ponencia presentada al II Congreso Internacional sobre «Los Derechos Económicos y Sociales y su exigibilidad en el Estado Social y Democrático de Derecho», organizado por el Tribunal Constitucional de la República Dominicana, Santo Domingo.
• Soto, F. F. El Tribunal Constitucional de la República Dominicana: siete años de una nueva justicia constitucional. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 201.
• García, V. R. (2019). Aproximación a la tutela judicial diferenciada en la justicia constitucional dominicana. COMPILACIÓN DE ESTUDIOS LEGALES, 25.

Venezuela

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Brewer-Carías, A. R. (2015). El Amparo Constitucional en Venezuela. Revista de Derecho Público, (74), Págs-33.
• Pinto, J. M. (2015). Paradigma constitucional y derechos civiles y políticos en la Constitución de Veneuela. Apuntes Electorales, (8).
• Martínez, J. M. G. (2015). REGULACIÓN, REALIDAD Y OPERATIVIDAD DEL SISTEMA DE GARANTÍAS CONSTITUCIONALES SOBRE DERECHOS Y LIBERTADES EN VENEZUELA* 1/REGULATION, REALITY, AND OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM OF CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEES ON RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS IN VENEZUELA. Revista de Derecho UNED, (16), 321.

El Salvador

• Landa, C. (2011). El proceso de amparo en América Latina. Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, 17, 207-226.
• Peri, L. (2016). El derecho a la privacidad digital. Análisis de los marcos legales de Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador y Nicaragua. Cuaderno Jurídico y Político, 2(5), 15-31.

Nicaragua

• Somarriba, J. B. A., & Hurtado, C. E. L. (2018). Reseñas históricas y tratamiento jurídico del amparo en Nicaragua. A propósito de la nueva Ley de Justicia constitucional. DÍKÊ. Revista de Investigación en Derecho, Criminología y Consultoría Jurídica, 11(21), 55-77.

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[1] Enshrined in the Carta Federal on February 5th, 1857.

[2] American Convention on Human Rights, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, adopted in San Jose, Costa Rica, Nov 22, 1969.

[3] Adopted at the Inter-American Specialized Conference on Human Rights, San José, Costa Rica, 22 November 1969.

[4] de Carvalho Neto, T. V. (2021). Mandado de Segurança Contra Ato de Tribunal Regional Eleitoral. Resenha Eleitoral, 25(1), 35-58.