A Guide to Legal Research in Russia
By Arina V. Popova and Lev S. Solovyev
Update by Arina V. Popova and Andrey A. Arnautovich
Arina V. Popova earned her Master of Laws degree (LLM) at the New York University School of Law (2006). She received her law degree (J.D.) in 2005 from St. Petersburg State University School of Law, Russia.
Andrey A. Arnautovich earned his Bachelor of Laws with Honours degree (LL.B) at Birmingham Law School, University of Birmingham, England (2013) and Postgraduate Diploma in International Legal Practice (LPC) at the University of Law (2014). He also holds a B.A. (Jurisprudence) degree from Saint Petersburg State University, Faculty of Law, Russia (2005).
Published March 2017
(Previously updated in by Arina Popova and Lev S. Soloviev in Aug. 2008; and by by Arina V. Popova and Andrey A. Arnautovich in Dec. 2013, Dec. 2014, and Mar. 2016)
Table of Contents
I.Russia – General Information
B.Language, Religion, Currency
II. Political System and the Government Structure
A. Democratic and Federal State
B. Separation and Balancing Powers
C. State and Local Self-Government Authorities
1. State Authorities of the Russian Federation
2. State Authorities of the Subjects of the Russian Federation
3. Local Self-Government Authorities
III. The State Authorities of the Russian Federation
A. The President of the Russian Federation
1. The Role of the President of Russia
2. The Requirements to be a President of Russia
3. The President’s Major Powers
4. Impeachment
B. The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation
3. The Council of the Federation
C. The Government of the Russian Federation
D. The Judicial System of the Russian Federation
3. Supreme Court of Russian Federation
4. Courts of General Jurisdiction
5. Commercial (“Arbitrazh”) Courts
IV. Regional State Authorities
B. The Constitution of the Russian Federation
D. Federal Constitutional Laws
E. Codes
F. Federal Laws
G. The Decrees and Orders of the President of the Russian Federation
I. Regional Laws and Regulations
2. Garant
3. Kodeks
VI. Legal Education and Career in Russia
B. Legal Career
2. Advocates
4. Judges
5. Lawyers at Consulting Companies
VII. Doing Business in Russian Guides
I. Russia – General Information
A. Geography and Population
The Russian Federation, or Russia, is the largest country by territory in the world, bordering a number of European countries (including Poland and the Baltic countries) to the west, Finland and the Arctic Ocean to the north, Asian countries (including China) to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the east.
According to the latest All-Russia Population Census (October, 2010), the population of the Russian Federation was approximately 143.4 million people and in 2016 the Federal State Statistics Service, the Russian official statistics body, evaluated the population at 146.5 million people (official English website). The capital of Russia is Moscow (with a population of approximately 11.5 million people according to the 2010 Census). The so-called “cultural” and historical capital is Saint Petersburg (with a population of approximately 4.9 million people according to the 2010 Census).
B. Language, Religion, Currency
The Russian language is the official state language of the Russian Federation. English is taught more widely than any other foreign language and is the principal foreign language in the Russian Federation (with 7.6 million people, or 5.3% of the population, being able to speak English according to the 2010 Census).
Orthodox Christianity remains the religion of 75% of the population and non-believers amount to approximately 10%. Other Christian denominations and other religions account for the remaining 10% (according to the ‘Public Opinion 2015’ survey (Russian access) by Levada-Center (official English website; may need to copy and paste the link into browser), a major Russian sociological think-tank). However, only 4% identify themselves as ‘very religious’ and 68% describe themselves as ‘rather or not too religious’.
The rouble (RUR) is the national currency of the Russian Federation.
C. State Symbols
The National Flag (English access) of the Russian Federation is a rectangular cloth of three equal horizontal stripes: the uppermost is white, the middle is blue and the bottom is red.
The National Anthem (English access) is one of the official state symbols of the Russian Federation. The Anthem’s words reflect feelings of patriotism and respect for the country’s history.
The National Coat of Arms (English access) of the Russian Federation is an official state symbol. The double-headed eagle has regained its status as the centrepiece of Russia’s State Emblem, testifying to the continuity of Russian history.
II. Political System and Governmental Structure
A. Democratic and Federal State
After the collapse of the Russian Empire in the revolutions of 1917, Russia (and later the Soviet Union) was governed by the Communist Party, the only party that existed in the USSR. With the fall of the USSR in 1991, the history of the modern Russia begins.
Today, Russia is a democratic, federal state with a republican form of governance consisting of 85 independent Subjects (literarily referred to in Russian as the “Subjects of the Russian Federation”). At the same time, the federal structure of the Russian Federation is based on its state integrity. 85 Subjects of the Russian Federation are:
· 22 republics;
· 9 territories;
· 46 regions;
· 3 cities of federal importance;
· 1 autonomous region; and
· 4 autonomous areas.
The Subjects of the Russian Federation have their own constitutions/charters and legislation, as well as their own regional state authorities.
In addition to the division of the Russian Federation into 85 Subjects, each Subject also contains a number of municipalities. For the purposes of the President’s direct supervision, in 2000 the territory of the Russian Federation was also divided into federal districts, each of which is overseen by an authorized representative appointed by the President. There are 9 federal districts now. This division does not affect or undermine the powers and authority of the Subjects of the Russian Federation.
B. Separation and Balancing of Powers
The state authorities in the Russian Federation are separated into legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government, which are independent from each other. The state power is also divided between the state bodies of the Russian Federation and the state bodies of the Subjects of the Russian Federation.
C. State and Local Self-Government Authorities
1. State Authorities of the Russian Federation
The State Authorities of the Russian Federation are:
· the President of the Russian Federation;
· Legislative: The Federal Assembly (the State Duma, the lower chamber, and the Council of the Federation, the upper chamber);
· Executive: The Government of the Russian Federation and relevant executive authorities; and
· Judicial: Courts of the Russian Federation.
The position of the President is rather unique and will be discussed in a dedicated part below.
2. State Authorities of the Subjects of the Russian Federation
The state power in the Subjects of the Russian Federation is exercised by the state authorities, comprised of regional legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Legislative authorities and the governors are elected by the respective population of the Subjects of the Russian Federation. Executive authorities are appointed by the elected governor of the Subject of the Russian Federation.
3. Local Self-Governing Authorities
The power within the municipalities is exercised by the local self-governing authorities, which are independent from state authorities. The limits of their power are prescribed by federal laws.
III. The State Authorities of the Russian Federation
A. The President of the Russian Federation
1. The Role of the President of Russia
The President of the Russian Federation (English access) is the head of the State who determines the guidelines of the State’s internal and foreign policies and acts as a guarantor of the Constitution and rights and freedoms of individual and of the citizen.
The role of the President is better described as unique: on the one hand, he is the head of the State who has been democratically elected by the nation, and on the other hand, he is not the head of the executive branch of power (the Prime Minister is). However, the President appoints the Prime Minister with approval of the Duma. This unique status reflects historical heritage of state governance in Russia. The current Russian President is Mr. Vladimir V. Putin (English access), who was elected President of Russia on March 4, 2012 and inaugurated as President on May 7, 2012. Next presidential elections are due in 2018.
2. The Requirements to be a President of Russia
Any citizen of the Russian Federation of at least 35 years of age and with a permanent residence record in the Russian Federation of not less than 10 years can be elected President of the Russian Federation.
The President of the Russian Federation is elected for a six-year term by citizens of the Russian Federation (between 1993 and 2008 the President was elected for a four-year term). The same person may not be elected for more than two consecutive terms.
3. The President’s Major Powers
The President of the Russian Federation has a right to:
· appoint (with a consent of the State Duma) the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation;
· chair meetings of the Government of the Russian Federation;
· present to the Council of the Federation candidates for appointment as judges of the highest courts of the Russian Federation, as well as appoint judges of other federal courts;
· dissolve the State Duma (in cases provided by the Constitution of the Russian Federation);
· submit bills to the State Duma, sign or veto them, and make public the federal laws; and
· issue decrees and orders related to a great number of spheres, which are binding throughout the Russian Federation. (Those decrees and orders cannot, however, contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal laws).
4. Impeachment
The President of the Russian Federation may be impeached by the Council of the Federation on the basis of charges of high treason or other grave crimes, advanced by the State Duma and confirmed by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation.
There is no precedent of successful impeachment in Russia. The impeachment procedure was once initiated in 1999 against then-President Boris N. Eltsin. The special committee of the State Duma (responsible for examining the allegations against Boris N. Eltsin) found all allegations against the President unfounded and no further actions were taken.
B. The Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation
1. General Notes
The Federal Assembly is a parliament of the Russian Federation sitting on a permanent basis and consisting of two chambers – the State Duma (the lower chamber) and the Council of the Federation (the upper chamber). The State Duma and the Council of the Federation have separate sittings.
2. The State Duma
The State Duma (Russian access) is the lower chamber of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.
The State Duma consists of 450 deputies elected for a term of five years. A citizen of the Russian Federation over 21 years of age is eligible to be elected deputy of the State Duma. The State Duma sets up committees and commissions and holds parliamentary hearings on issues within its jurisdiction.
The composition of the State Duma is not based on a bipartisan system like legislative authorities in the United States. Four major parties are currently represented in the State Duma (since 18 September 2016): the pro-presidential party “Edinaya Rossia” (United Russia) (Russian access) (76.2%), Russian Communist Party (English access) (9.3%), Russian Liberal Democrats Party (Russian access) (8.7%), “Spravedlivaya Rossia” (Fair Russia) Party (English access) (5.1%). Next general elections are due in 2021.
Since 2016 a new system of allocation of seats was introduced: half of the Duma (225 seats) are allocated between the parties in proportion of the votes received at general elections (provided that each passes the 5% threshold) and the other half is occupied by directly elected representatives from 225 constituencies.
The State Duma has the following major powers:
· adoption of the federal constitutional laws and the federal laws, which are the main sources of law in the Russian Federation;
· approving the appointment of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation; and
· advancing charges against the President of the Russian Federation for his impeachment.
3. The Council of the Federation
The Council of the Federation (Limited English access and Russian access) is the upper chamber of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. It consists of (i) two representatives from each Subject of the Russian Federation: one from the legislative branch and one from the executive branch of the respective regional state authorities and, (since 22 July 2014), (ii) up to 17 representatives of the Russian Federation directly appointed by the President of the Russian Federation (this is up to 10% of the total number of the representatives of the Subjects of the Russian Federation).
A citizen of the Russian Federation over 30 years of age and of spotless reputation who has been residing in the territory of a respective Subject of the Russian Federation for at least of five years is eligible to be elected a member to the Council of the Federation (subject to certain restrictions). The Council of the Federation sets up committees and commissions, and holds parliamentary hearings on issues within its jurisdiction.
The Council of the Federation has the following major powers:
· approval of the federal constitutional laws and the federal laws adopted by the State Duma;
· approval of changes of borders between the Subjects of the Russian Federation;
· impeachment of the President of the Russian Federation;
· appointment of judges of the Highest Courts of the Russian Federation; and
· appointment and dismissal of the Prosecutor-General of the Russian Federation.
4. Legislative Process
The power to initiate bills belongs to:
· the President of the Russian Federation;
· the Council of the Federation and its members;
· the deputies of the State Duma;
· the Government of the Russian Federation;
· the legislative bodies of the Subjects of the Russian Federation; and
· the Highest Courts of the Russian Federation (on the matters within their competence).
Bills are considered and adopted after three hearings by the State Duma. Bills are then either considered and approved by the Council of the Federation or, if the bills are not considered within 14 days, are deemed to be approved by the Council.
The adopted bills are submitted to the President of the Russian Federation for signing and making them public. The President of the Russian Federation has a right to veto the bill, which, however, may be overcome by a qualified majority (2/3 of votes) of both deputies of the State Duma and members of the Council of the Federation.
Laws shall be officially published for general knowledge either in “The Russian Newspaper” (only recent legislative acts in Russian are available on the web-site) (Russian access), or “The Parliamentary Newspaper” (Russian access), “The Collection of Laws of the Russian Federation” Magazine (only the titles of enacted legislative acts in Russian are available on the web-site) (Russian access), or on the “The Official Internet Portal of Legal Information” (Russian access). Laws are not necessarily published contemporaneously in these sources.
Laws enter into force on the entire territory of Russia as of 10 days of their first publication date as described above unless other date is stipulated in the respective laws. Unpublished laws are not effective.
C. The Government of the Russian Federation
The executive power in Russia is exercised by the Government of the Russian Federation (English access) and the relevant executive bodies.
The Government of the Russian Federation consists of its Chairman (appointed by the President of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma of the Russian Federation), Deputy Chairman(s) and federal ministries. The Government of the Russian Federation resigns before each newly-elected President is inaugurated. The current Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation is Mr Dmitry A. Medvedev, who was appointed Chairman on May 8, 2012.
The Government of the Russian Federation has the regulatory and supervisory power in the areas of finance, state budget, culture, science, education, health protection, social security and ecology, the federal property, national defence, state security, foreign policy of the Russian Federation, human rights and freedoms, public order and crime control.
The Government of the Russian Federation may issue decisions and orders binding throughout the Russian Federation, which, however, must comply with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws and decrees of the President of the Russian Federation.
At the time of writing the Ministries in the Government of the Russian Federation are:
· The Ministry of Agriculture (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Civil Defence, Emergencies and Disaster Relief (English access);
· The Ministry of Communications and Mass Media (English access);
· The Ministry of Construction, Housing, and Utilities (Russian access / Limited English access);
· The Ministry of Culture (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Defence (English access);
· The Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Economic Development (English access);
· The Ministry of Education and Science (English access);
· The Ministry of Energy (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Finance (English access);
· The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (English access);
· The Ministry of Healthcare (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Industry and Trade (Russian access);
· The Ministry of the Interior (English access);
· The Ministry of Justice (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection (English access);
· The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (English access);
· The Ministry of North Caucasus Affairs (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Sport (Russian access);
· The Ministry of Transport (Russian access).
D. The Judicial System of the Russian Federation
1. The Judicial System (the Federal Constitutional Law “On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation” N 1-FKZ, dated December 31, 1996) (English access, version as amended in 2011 / Russian access, version as amended in 2014)
Justice in the Russian Federation is administered by the courts alone and exercised by means of constitutional, civil, administrative, and criminal proceedings.
The judicial system (English access):
· Federal state courts:
o the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation;
o the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation;
o courts of general jurisdiction; and
o specialised state commercial courts, named “arbitrazh” courts.
· Courts of the Subjects of the Russian Federation:
o constitutional courts of the Subjects of the Russian Federation; and
o justice of the peace.
2. The Constitutional Courts
The constitutional courts include the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (English access) and constitutional courts of the Subjects of the Russian Federation. The main function of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation is to resolve issues with regard to the compliance of laws and regulations with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Constitutional courts of the Subjects of the Russian Federation have similar functions with regard to compliance of regional acts with respective regional constitutions and charters.
3. Supreme Court of the Russian Federation
As of August 6, 2014 the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (mainly Russian access) became the top court for civil (including commercial), criminal, administrative, military, and other cases. The Supreme Arbitrazh Court was completely abolished by the Law dated February 5, 2014 that amended the Constitution and was accompanied by a series of laws that gave effect to it (this includes the amendments to the Law ‘On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated December 31, 1996; new Law ‘On the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation’ No. 3-FKZ dated February 5, 2014; and some others).
The change produced mixed opinions in the Russian legal community. Some welcomed the move as bringing a desired unification to the judicial system but others were critical about it expressing fears that this might affect the overall quality of justice in both courts of general jurisdiction and arbitrazh courts. The correctness of these views is still to be tested. Only a limited number of judges of the former Supreme Arbitrazh Court joined the reformed Supreme Court (they either voluntarily opted not to join for various reasons or did not satisfy qualification requirements).
The Supreme Court now is the final instance for most cases in the Russian Federation (however, certain cases may still be brought to the European Court of Human Rights which decisions are binding on the Russian Federation). It can also issue advisory opinions on matters of judicial practice that are binding on the subordinate courts (courts of general jurisdiction and arbitrazh courts).
4. Courts of General Jurisdiction
There is a two-level system of the courts of general jurisdiction:
- federal (Russian Federation) level: supreme courts of the Subjects of the Russian Federation (despite their name they are treated as federal courts), district courts, military courts, and specialised courts; and
- Subjects of the Russian Federation level: justice of the peace.
Together these courts form a single system (‘branch’) of the courts of general jurisdiction (contrast with another ‘branch’ of courts—arbitrazh courts (see below)). These courts are headed by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation as the supreme judicial body of this branch.
Courts of general jurisdiction hear (i) civil cases with participation of individuals, (ii) criminal cases, and (iii) disputes between individuals and state authorities.
5. Commercial (“Arbitrazh”) Courts
Commercial disputes in Russia are resolved by arbitrazh courts, which have a three-tier hierarchical system:
· the first level is the federal arbitrazh courts located in each Subject of the Russian Federation;
· the second level is 21 arbitrazh appellate courts; and
· the third level is 10 federal district arbitrazh courts.
In 2013 a new specialised arbitrazh court – the Court for Intellectual Property Rights (Russian access) began to deliver its first judgments. It exists within the three-tier system of arbitrazh courts. It resolves disputes as a first and (or) third level court for certain disputes (that are generally within the jurisdiction of arbitrazh courts) related to intellectual property (including copyright, trademarks, patents and similar disputes).
With the abolishment of the Supreme Arbitrazh Court in 2014, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation became the top court for commercial disputes that are triable in the arbitrazh courts.
6. Private Arbitration
Parties may also refer commercial disputes to the tribunals of private arbitration (both ad hoc and institutional) serving as an alternative to the state courts. International commercial arbitration is mainly regulated by the Law of the Russian Federation “On International Commercial Arbitration” (English access), dated July 7, 1993, identical to the Model UNCITRAL Law.
The best known international commercial arbitration courts in Russia are the International Commercial Arbitration Court at the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation (English access), the Maritime Arbitration Committee (Russian access), and the Arbitration Tribunal at the St. Petersburg Chamber of Commerce and Industry (Russian access).
Parties that do not have an international component to their dispute may resolve their case with a tribunal established under the new Law of the Russian Federation “On Arbitration (Arbitral Proceedings) in the Russian Federation” (Russian access) (entered into force on 1 September 2016). It repealed the Law of the Russian Federation “On Arbitration Tribunals in the Russian Federation” (English Access), dated 24 July 2002. The new law is a cornerstone of the reform of arbitration (meaning private arbitration, not Commercial (“Arbitrazh”) Courts) in Russia. It is intended to improve the quality of arbitration generally, widen the powers of arbitration tribunals, and prevent abuse of arbitration. Various helpful overviews with details of the reform have been prepared by international law firms, for example: by Debevoise & Plimpton (English access), by Herbert Smith Freehills (English access), and by White & Case (English and Russian access).
IV. Regional State Authorities
The system of state bodies of the Subjects of the Russian Federation is established by the Subjects of the Russian Federation in accordance with the general principles of the organization of representative and executive state bodies established by federal laws. Therefore, the state power in the Subjects of the Russian Federation has been traditionally exercised by the regional executive and legislative bodies elected by the population of those Subjects.
As a result of the legislative changes initiated by Vladimir V. Putin in 2004 to reduce the influence of regional state authorities, the governors of the Subjects of the Russian Federation were nominated by the President of Russia and approved by the regional legislative bodies. However, in 2012 at the initiative of then-President Dmitry A. Medvedev, the reform was rolled back and now the governors are again elected by the population of the respective Subject of the Russian Federation.
V. Sources of Law
A. General Notes
The Russian Federation is a civil law country. It means that legislative acts are the sources of law, which have a primary role, whereas court decisions, contrary to the basics of the common law legal system, are not regarded as the sources of law. Russia is a secular state and therefore no religious law applies.
B. The Constitution of the Russian Federation
The Constitution of the Russian Federation (English access / Russian access) is the supreme law throughout the territory of the Russian Federation and is self-executing. Laws and other legal acts adopted in the Russian Federation may not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation.
The current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted through a referendum on December 12, 1993. Various amendments thereto were introduced later, including the most recent one in 2014.
C. International Treaties
International treaties to which the Russian Federation is a party are an integral part of the Russian legal system provided that they were ratified by the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. The laws of the Russian Federation should not contradict international treaties; in case of conflict, however, the rules of the international treaty will apply. This rule, arguably, does not extend to the Constitution itself, which will prevail in the extremely unlikely event of a conflict between the Constitution and an international treaty (there has been no precedent of such conflict).
D. Federal Constitutional Laws
Any laws in the Russian Federation may not contradict the federal constitutional laws. Federal Constitutional Laws (FCL) are adopted only on the issues exclusively envisaged by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. At the time of writing the following FCLs were in force (excluding FCLs that amend other FCLs, FCLs on amendment of the Constitution, and FCLs on creation of new Subjects of the Russian Federation):
· FCL ‘On the State of Emergence’ No. 3-FKZ dated May 30, 2001 (English access to the version as amended March 7, 2005) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Admission to the Russian Federation and the Creation Therein of New Subjects of the Russian Federation’ No. 6-FKZ dated December 17, 2001 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the National Flag of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated December 25, 2000 (English access to the version as amended December 28, 2010) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the National Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation’ No. 2-FKZ dated December 25, 2000 (English access to the version as amended on July 23, 2013) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the National Anthem of the Russian Federation’ No. 3-FKZ dated December 25, 2000 (English access to the version as amended March 22, 2001) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Referendum in the Russian Federation’ No. 5-FKZ dated June 28, 2004 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Martial Law’ No. 1-FKZ dated January 30, 2002 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Commissioner for Human Rights in the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated February 26, 1997 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Government of the Russian Federation’ No. 2-FKZ dated December 17, 1997 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated December 31, 1996 (English access to the version as amended December 6, 2011) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated July 21, 1994 (English access to the initial version) (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Arbitrazh Courts of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated April 28, 1995 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Courts of General Jurisdiction of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated February 7, 2011 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Military Courts of the Russian Federation’ No. 1-FKZ dated June 23, 1999 (Russian access to the latest version);
· FCL ‘On the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation’ No. 3-FKZ dated February 5, 2014 (English access to the version as amended November 4, 2014) (Russian access to the latest version).
Please note that there are no official English translations of the FCLs. Therefore, please use a Russian version for most recent updates.
E. Codes
The Codes are consolidated legislation in a particular area. Although formally they have the force of an ordinary federal law, many of them proclaim themselves to be a law of the highest judicial force in a particular area among all ordinary federal laws in the Russian Federation. This sometimes causes problems when interpreting laws which contradict codes. The Codes usually provide the basis for the respective area of law.
The most important Codes in the Russian Federation are the following (in alphabetical order):
· the Air Code (Russian access);
· the Budgetary Code (Russian access / English access);
· the City-Planning Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Civil Code (Parts 1 – 4) (Russian access / English access);
· the Civil Procedure Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Code of Administrative Procedure (Russian access);
· the Code of Arbitrazh Procedure (Russian access / English access);
· the Code on Administrative Offenses (Russian access / English access);
· the Criminal Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Criminal Penitentiary Code (Russian access);
· the Criminal Procedure Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Customs Code of the Customs Union (Russian access / English Access);
· the Family Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Forest Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Housing Code (Russian access);
· the Inland Water Transport Code (Russian access);
· the Labour Code (Russian access / English access)
· the Land Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Merchant Shipping Code (Russian access / English access);
· the Tax Code (Parts 1 – 2) (Russian access / English access); and
· the Water Code (Russian access / English access).
As of November 2016, a draft of the Unified Civil Procedure Code of the Russian Federation was still in a development stage. The concept of the draft Code was presented to the public in December 2014 (Russia access). The Code is expected to unify procedural rules and best practices for all court procedures (other than criminal procedure) and to replace the Civil Procedure Code, the Code of Arbitrazh Procedure, and, possibly, the Code of Administrative Procedure. Currently it is not clear when a draft will be presented to the Duma for debating.
Please note that there is no official English translation the codes. Therefore, please use a Russian version for most recent updates.
F. Federal Laws
The federal laws have supremacy throughout the Russian Federation. The bodies of state authority, the bodies of local self-government, officials, individuals and companies are obliged to observe the federal laws. They, however, may not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal constitutional laws.
The federal laws are passed on the issues within the sole jurisdiction of the Russian Federation, as well as under the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the Subjects of the Russian Federation (those jurisdictions are explicitly defined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation).
G. The Degrees and Orders of the President of the Russian Federation
The President of the Russian Federation issues decrees and orders, which are obligatory for fulfilment throughout the Russian Federation. Those decrees and orders may not contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal laws.
H. The Decisions and Orders of the Government of the Russian Federation and Other State Executive Authorities
On the basis, and for the sake of implementation of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the federal laws, normative decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, the Government of the Russian Federation and other state executive authorities of the Russian Federation issue regulations, decisions and orders, which are binding in the Russian Federation.
The decisions and orders of the Government of the Russian Federation, if they are inconsistent with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws and decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, may be declared void by the President of the Russian Federation.
I. Regional Laws and Regulations
On the issues within the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the Subjects of the Russian Federation, the latter may adopt regional laws and regulations, which should comply with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the federal constitutional laws and federal laws. In case of a contradiction, the federal regulations prevail. The Subjects of the Russian Federation may adopt regional laws and regulations on issues within their exclusive jurisdiction.
The President of the Russian Federation has the right to suspend acts of the executive authorities of the Subjects of the Russian Federation if they contradict the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal laws, international obligations of the Russian Federation, or violate human and civil rights.
J. Court Decisions
As a general rule, court decisions are not considered as a source of law in the Russian Federation. There is no concept of judicial precedent in Russia. However, court decisions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation and regional constitutional courts are considered as quasi-sources of law, since they (a) may invalidate normative acts on the basis of the latter’s non-compliance with relevant constitutions/charters, (b) are binding on everyone (including the State Duma and the President), and (c) cannot be challenged in any court.
In addition, as stated earlier, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation regularly issues advisory opinions on matters of judicial practice, which are binding on the courts of the lower instances of the respective judicial branches. In practice, state authorities, companies and individuals also take these general rulings into consideration, when facing relevant legal issues.
Although court decisions are not regarded as a source of law in the Russian Federation, they usually serve as persuasive legal guidance for legal practitioners.
K. Official Publications
Federal constitutional laws, federal laws, decrees and regulations of the President and Government of the Russian Federation, as well as normative acts of other executive state authorities are published in the following official printed press: “The Russian Newspaper” (only recent legislative acts in Russian are available on the web-site), “The Collection of Laws of the Russian Federation” Magazine (only the titles of legislative acts in Russian are available on the web-site), “The Parliamentary Newspaper” (only recent legislative acts in Russian are available on the web-site); and also published on “The Official Portal of Legal Information” (Russian access).
Court decisions of the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation are published in “Vestnik of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation” (English access) and “Bulletin of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation” (Russian access) correspondingly. A vast collection of various periodicals is available on the Official Portal of Legal Information (Russian access).
L. Russian Legal Databases
There are four most commonly-used legal databases in Russia:
· Consultant Plus;
· Garant;
· Kodeks; and
· The Legislation of Russia
Each of those three legal databases covers all effective codes, federal constitutional laws, federal laws, decrees and regulations of the President and the Government of the Russian Federation, normative acts of Russian state executive authorities, as well as all court decisions of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Arbitrazh Court and the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. Additionally, they contain acts of the Soviet Union that are still in force and international acts that are binding for the Russian Federation. A considerable number of court decisions of lower courts, as well as a great number of books, scholarly commentaries, and legal publications are also contained in each of these legal databases.
Also, the main features of each of those legal databases are outlined below.
1. Consultant Plus
Today Consultant Plus (Russian access / Limited English access) is the largest (mainly fee-based) legislation and court decisions data bank available in Russia. The total number of documents of Consultant Plus database exceeds 100,000,000 (data correct for 2015). New documents are added into the database on daily basis, within few days of their adoption by the authorities of the Russian Federation.
From a viewpoint of legal practitioners, Consultant Plus contains the most comprehensive database of Russian court decisions, which are very useful when dealing with situations similar to those addressed in the decisions. It is worth noting that Consultant Plus has a free on-line access to approximately 700,000 documents in Russian language from 8 p.m. to 12 a.m. on weekdays (Moscow time) and at any time during weekends. Consultant Plus also has a special supplementary “Consultant Plus Regions”, which provides for access to almost all regional laws and normative acts. In addition, Consultant Plus is the first Russian legal database providing access to the texts of classical pre-Revolutionary civil law textbooks, i.e. of 19-20 centuries. Consultant Plus does not provide for texts of legislation in English, though English versions of some international acts are available.
2. Garant
A fee-based database Garant (Russian access / Limited English access) includes specialized databases on all spheres of federal legislation. In addition, the legislative acts of all 85 Subjects of the Russian Federation, as well as the decisions of Russian courts are presented in the database. An on-line demo version of the database in English is available here.
The main advantage of Garant is that this legal database supplies information on the Russian legislation both in English and Russian. At present, all fundamental Russian laws have been translated into English including documents concerning the civil law, tax law and the avoidance of double taxation, customs law, etc. Garant database is supplemented weekly with 30-40 documents translated into English.
A significant number of foreign companies (international organizations, foreign banks and embassies, large audit, consulting and manufacturing companies) in Russia use the Garant database. The system Garant is also distributed via the LexisNexis network.
3. Kodeks
Kodeks (Russian access / Limited English access) is another comprehensive fee-based database of Russian laws, other normative acts and court decisions.
4. The Legislation of Russia
The Legislation of Russia (Russian access) is a Government-run informational legal system, a part of the Official Internet Portal of Legal Information (Russian access). At the time of writing (November 2016) the database contained approximately 187,000 documents of federal legislation (meaning the legislation of the Subjects of the Russian Federation while local legislation was not included) and covered the period from 1937 to 2016.
M. Legal Publications
Legal publications are not considered sources of law in Russia. However, the following fundamental textbooks (available in Russian language only) are usually referred to by legal students and practitioners.
As a part of the civil legislation reform, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation was significantly changed in 2012-2015 and more amendments are likely to be introduced in the near future. Therefore, some of the books listed below do not incorporate all recent changes. However, they remain a valuable source of legal knowledge.
Theory of State and Law
· Lev I. Spiridonov, Theory of State and Law (2001)
· Andrei V. Polyakov, Elena V. Timoshina, General Theory of Law (2005)
· Demian Bahrah, Essays in the Theory of Russian Law (2008)
· Vladik S. Nersesyants et al, Problems of the General Theory of Law (2010)
· Michail N. Marchenko, Theory of State and Law (2008)
Constitutional Law
· Marat V. Baglay, Constitutional Law of the Russian Federation (6th ed. 2005)
· Ekaterina Kozlova, Oleg Kutafin, Constitutional Law of the Russian Federation (4th ed. 2009)
· Alexander N. Kokotov, Michail I. Kukushkin, Constitutional Law of the Russian Federation (4th ed. 2010)
· Vladimir V. Lazarev, Theoretical and Practical Commentary to the Constitution of the Russian Federation (4th ed. 2009)
Civil Law
· Alexander P. Sergeev and Yuri K. Tolstoy (eds), Civil Law, Book 1 (6th ed. 2005)
· Alexander P. Sergeev and Yuri K. Tolstoy (eds), Civil Law, Book 2 (4th ed. 2008)
· Alexander P. Sergeev and Yuri K. Tolstoy (eds), Civil Law, Book 3 (4th ed. 2006)
· Alexander P. Sergeev (ed), Civil Law, Book 1 (2010)
· Alexander P. Sergeev (ed), Civil Law, Book 2 (2012)
· Alexander P. Sergeev (ed), Civil Law, Book 3 (2010)
· Alexander P. Sergeev (ed), Commentary to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 1 (2012)
· Alexander P. Sergeev (ed), Commentary to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 2 (2012)
· Anton A. Ivanov, Lidia U. Mikheeva, Mikhail V. Krotov, Article-by-Article Commentary to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 2 (in three volumes) (2011)
· Anton A. Ivanov (ed), Legal Positions of Presidium of the Supreme Arbitrazh Court of the Russian Federation: Selected Resolutions for the Year 2006 with Comments (2012)
· Anton A. Ivanov (ed), Legal Positions of Presidium of the Supreme Arbitrazh Court of the Russian Federation: Selected Resolutions for the Year 2007 with Comments (2012)
· Anton A. Ivanov (ed), Legal Positions of Presidium of the Supreme Arbitrazh Court of the Russian Federation: Selected Resolutions for the Year 2008 with Comments (2012)
· Anton A. Ivanov (ed), Legal Positions of Presidium of the Supreme Arbitrazh Court of the Russian Federation: Selected Resolutions for the Year 2009 with Comments (2012)
· Evgeniy A. Sukhanov et al., Civil Law, Book 1 (3d ed. 2008)
· Evgeniy A. Sukhanov et al., Civil Law, Book 2 (3d ed. 2008)
· Evgeniy A. Sukhanov et al., Civil Law, Book 3 (3d ed. 2008)
· Evgeniy A. Sukhanov et al., Civil Law, Book 4 (3d ed. 2008)
· Oleg N. Sadikov (ed), Civil Law, Book 1 (2009)
· Oleg N. Sadikov (ed), Civil Law, Book 2 (2009)
· Oleg N. Sadikov et al., Commentary to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 1 (3d ed. 2006)
· Oleg N. Sadikov et al., Commentary to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, Part 2 (5th ed. 2008)
· Vadim A. Belov, Civil Law, Book 1 (2d ed. 2012)
· Vadim A. Belov, Civil Law, Book 2 (2012)
· Vadim A. Belov, Civil Law, Book 3 (2012)
· Vadim A. Belov, Civil Law, Book 4 (2013)
· Vadim A. Belov (ed), Civil Law. The Current Problems of Theory and Practice (2009)
· The Civil Law Research Centre under the President of the Russian Federation, The Concept of Development of the Russian Civil Legislation (2009)
Contract Law
· Mikhail I. Braginskiy & Vasiliy V. Vitryanskiy, Contract Law, Book 1 (3d ed. 2011)
· Mikhail I. Braginskiy & Vasiliy V. Vitryanskiy, Contract Law, Book 2 (2d ed. 2011)
· Mikhail I. Braginskiy & Vasiliy V. Vitryanskiy, Contract Law, Book 3 (2d ed. 2011)
· Mikhail I. Braginskiy & Vasiliy V. Vitryanskiy, Contract Law, Book 4 (5th ed. 2011)
· Mikhail I. Braginskiy & Vasiliy V. Vitryanskiy, Contract Law, Book 5, volumes 1 and 2 (2d ed. 2006)
Corporate and Commercial Law
· Boris I. Puginsky, Commercial Law of the Russian Federation (2d ed. 2009)
· Dmitri V. Lomakin, Corporate Legal Relationships. General Theory and Application Practice Thereof in Commercial Companies (2008)
· Vadim A. Belov (ed), Corporate Law. The Current Problems of Theory and Practice (2009)
· Irina S. Shitkina, Corporate Law (2015)
· Evgeniy A. Sukhanov, Comparative Corporate Law (2014)
Civil and Arbitration Procedure
· Galina L. Osokina, Civil Procedure. General Provisions (3d ed. 2013)
· Galina L. Osokina, Civil Procedure. Special Provisions (2007)
· Mikhail K. Treushnikov (ed), Arbitration Procedure (4th ed. 2011)
· Mikhail K. Treushnikov (ed), Civil Procedure (4th ed. 2011)
· Vladimir V. Yarkov, Civil Procedure (6th ed. 2006)
· Vladimir V. Yarkov, Arbitration Procedure (4th ed. 2010)
International Public Law
· Kamil’ A. Bekyashev, International Public Law (5th ed, 2013)
· Yuriy M. Kolosov et al., International Law (2d ed. 2007)
· Igor I. Lukashuk, International Law: General Part (2005)
· Igor I. Lukashuk, International Law: Special Part (2005)
· Gennadiy V. Ignatenko, Oleg I. Tiunov, International Law (5th ed. 2010)
International Private Law
· Mark M. Boguslavsky, International Private Law (6th ed. 2010)
· Lazar A. Lunz, International Private Law in 3 Books (2002)
· Vladimir A. Kanashevskiy, International Private Law (2009)
Labor Law
· Sergey P. Mavrin, Evgeniy B. Khokhlov (eds), Labor Law of the Russian Federation (3d ed. 2013)
Criminal Law
· Alexey N. Ignatov, Yuriy A. Krasikov, Russian Criminal Law (Part 1) (2005)
· Alexey N. Ignatov, Yuriy A. Krasikov, Russian Criminal Law (Part 2) (2d ed. 2008)
· Vladimir M. Lebedev, Commentary to the Criminal Code (13th ed. 2013)
· Alexander I. Boytsov, Vladimir N. Burlakov et al, Russian Criminal Law. General Part (2d ed. 2014)
· Alexander I. Boytsov, Vladimir N. Burlakov et al, Russian Criminal Law. Special Part (2d ed. 2014)
Criminal Procedure
· Alexander V. Grinenko (ed), Criminal Procedure (3d ed. 2013)
· Vyacheslav P. Bozh’ev, Criminal Procedure (4th ed. 2013)
· Vyacheslav P. Bozh’ev (ed), Commentary to the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation (8th ed. 2012)
Environmental Law
· Sergey A. Bogolyubov (ed), Environmental Law (4th ed. 2013)
· Michail M. Brinchuk, Environmental Law (4th ed. 2010)
· Olga L. Dubovik, Environmental Law (3rd ed. 2010)
Land Law
· Boris V. Erofeev, Land Law of the Russian Federation (13th ed. 2014)
· Sergey A. Bogolyubov (ed), Land Law (3d ed. 2013)
· Sergey A. Bogolyubov (ed), Commentary to the Land Code of the Russian Federation (8th ed. 2014)
· Yuriy G. Zharikov, Land Law of Russia (2008)
· Dmitriy V. Zhernakov, Elena K. Krylova et al, Commentary to the Land Code of the Russian Federation (2d ed. 2012)
Financial Law
· Elena U. Gracheva (ed), Financial Law (2012)
· Marina V. Karaseva (ed), Financial Law of the Russian Federation (4th ed. 2012)
· Nina I. Khimicheva (ed), Financial Law (5th ed. 2013)
Tax Law
· Elena U. Gracheva, Olga V. Boltinova (eds), Tax Law (2013)
· Natalia A. Sheveleva, Tax Law, Part 1 (2001)
· Natalia A. Sheveleva, Tax Law, Part 2 (2004)
Family Law
· Alexander P. Sergeev and Yuri K. Tolstoy (eds), Civil Law, Book 3 (4th ed. 2006)
· Ludmila M. Ptchelintseva, Family Law (6th ed. 2013)
· Maria V. Antokolskaya, Family Law (3d ed. 2013)
Among the best Publishing Houses in Russia, which publish books of a high quality are “Norma” (Russian access), “Prospekt” (Russian access), “Infra-M” (Russian access) and “Statut” (Russian access), “Juridichesky Center” (Russian Access).
Russian law journals also provide a wealth of material on Russian law. The listing below includes the most popular journals among Russian students and legal practitioners.
· Vestnik of the Economic Justice of the Russian Federation (Russian access to the list of publications)
· Arbitrazh Disputes Journal (Russian access)
· Corporate Lawyer Journal (Russian access to full versions of selected recent publications)
· Journal of Economy and Law (Russian access to full publications until 2010, access to newer publications is provide on a fee-basis)
· Arbitration Journal (Russian access to the list of publications and a number of articles)
· The Moscow Journal of International Law (Russian access to the list of publications)
· Zakon (a legal journal) (Russian access)
VI. Legal Education and Career in Russia
A. Legal Education
There is no official ranking of Law Schools in Russia. However, national university rankings prepared by various private expert agencies are becoming increasingly popular (see an overview of available rankings (Russian access)).
The only existing ranking of Russian Law Schools (Russian access), prepared by Interfax (a news agency) in 2009, considered the following law schools as Top-5 Law Schools in Russia:
· No.1: The M.V. Lomonosov Law School of Moscow State University (Russian access)
· No.2: The Law School of St. Petersburg State University (Russian and English access)
· No.3: Kutafin Moscow State Law University (Russian and English access)
· No.4: The Law School of Moscow State Institute of International Relations (Russian access)
· No.5: The Urals State Law University (Russian and English access)
Most Law Schools are operated and financed by Russian Government. Legal education takes from 4 (to obtain a Bachelor of Laws degree) to 6 years (additional 2 years to obtain a Master of Laws degree after obtaining a Bachelor of Laws degree). Completed education at the High School level (not the College level as in the United States) is required to enter the Law School.
Since 2012 Bachelors and Masters degrees of selected overseas universities are recognized in the Russian Federation without any additional requirements (the most recent list was approved by the Order of Government of the Russian Federation No. 2777-r dated December 30, 2015 (Russian access)). The list includes several hundred foreign educational establishments from 22 countries, including:
- Australia: Australian National University, University of Sydney, University of Melburn;
- Canada: University of Ottawa, McGill University;
- Germany: University of Munster, University of Hamburg, University of Freiburg;
- Japan: Kyoto University, University of Tokyo;
- Switzerland: University of Basel, University of Zurich;
- United Kingdom: University of Birmingham, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, University of St. Andrews;
- United States of America: Boston University, Harvard University, Yale University.
Other academic degrees and ranks (e.g., professor, associate professor, reader, doctor of philosophy) of selected overseas universities are also recognized without any additional requirements (the most recent list was approved by the Order of Government of the Russian Federation No. 582-r dated April 5, 2016 (Russian access)). Academic degrees and ranks awarded by educational establishments not included in this list must be first examined by a competent state body that makes a final determination.
B. Legal Career
Generally, neither a complete legal education, nor passing a bar exam is required to practice law in Russia, including representation clients in any courts. However, only those who have passed a bar exam (i.e. advocates) can represent the defendant in criminal proceedings; for occupying certain public offices (e.g., a state prosecutor, judge, etc.) it is necessary to pass an additional exam. However, in practice, at least in private sector, a law degree is a mandatory requirement to occupy a law-related position.
The following legal careers are typical for Russia:
· In-house lawyer;
· Advocate;
· Civil service lawyer;
· Judge;
· Lawyer at a consulting company; and
· Lawyer at a law firm.
1. In-house Lawyers
In-house lawyers are the most widespread category of lawyers in Russia. The largest Russian and multinational companies and banks have experienced in-house legal advisers. In case of domestic mergers and acquisitions, it is not uncommon for the vendor to have no external legal advisor, relying almost entirely on its in-house lawyers.
2. Advocates
Advocates are a separate category of lawyers, who choose a form of their practice (four possible forms are prescribed by law and include unions of advocates and privately owned law practices). This category of lawyers is self-employed and traditionally tends to represent clients in courts and deal with less complex matters, though they may also act, and actually often act as legal advisors with regard to any other legal matters. To be an advocate passing a relevant bar exam is required.
3. Civil Service Lawyers
Profession of a civil services lawyer (e.g., at state agencies regulating land, property, etc. and in law and tax enforcement bodies) is popular but salary levels are lower than in private practice.
The work as a civil services lawyer is strictly defined by federal laws and regulations.
4. Judges
Judges are a very prestigious category of lawyers in Russia. There are strict requirements to be a judge.
As a general rule, judges shall be citizens of the Russian Federation, over 25 years of age, with a higher education in law (i.e. have both a Bachelor of Laws and Master of Laws degrees or their equivalent), who have served in the legal profession for not less than five years. However, particular federal laws provide for additional, stricter requirements for the judges of the higher court instances.
Judges (except for those of the Highest Courts of the Russian Federation) are appointed by the President of Russia.
5. Lawyers at Consulting Companies
International consulting companies, such as the Big 4 companies (Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG, and PricewaterhouseCoopers), are not prohibited from providing legal services in Russia (though all Big 4 firms are bound by their internal rules on independence and, at least to some degree, by US and EU legislation which altogether set certain limits on the scope of their cervices, e.g., representing a party litigating against their audit client etc). In practice, they have considerable legal groups consisting of approximately 30-100 lawyers who often work in close collaboration with financial and tax advisors.
Lawyers at consulting companies usually provide corporate and tax advice, though they also tend to have small groups specialising in a particular area of law. However, the deals in the consulting companies are usually less complex than those at law firms. Moreover, in consulting companies, legal departments often play only a supportive role.
6. Lawyers at Law Firms
International law firms are traditionally considered as the most prestigious employers for the students graduating from Russian Law Schools. An LLM degree from a prominent US or UK law school sometimes serves as a prerequisite to enter a number of international law firms in Moscow. New associates are usually not hired by a particular department, but generally may choose one of the firms’ major practice areas to start (banking and finance, capital markets, corporate/commercial, dispute resolution, energy & natural resources, intellectual property).
Since the 2007 economic crisis there has been a shift in the Russian employment market: a general decrease of demand for legal services has caused lawyers from prominent law firms to seek in-house positions which offer a comparable salary, a better work and life balance, and more stable employment. This shift created additional pressure on law firms which are now in competition with strengthened in-house legal departments as well as against other law firms (both Russian and international).
At the very top end for the students and clients are firms such as (in alphabetical order):
· Akin, Gump, Strauss, Hauer & Feld
· Allen & Overy
· Baker Botts
· Baker & McKenzie
· Chadbourne & Parke
· Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton
· Clifford Chance
· Debevoise & Plimpton
· Dechert
· Dentons
· DLA Piper
· Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer
· Goltsblat BLP
· Herbert Smith Freehills
· Jones Day
· Latham & Watkins
· Linklaters
· Morgan, Lewis & Bockius
· Norton Rose Fulbright
· Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe
· Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom
· White & Case
· some others
According to the Legal 500 Series among the Russian firms, few have managed to truly challenge the dominance of the Western interlopers. Nevertheless, several (such as Egorov, Puginsky, Afanasiev & Partners, Pepeliaev Group, and Muranov, Chernyakov and Partners) do compete with international law firms in terms of hiring law school graduates.
The Law Firms ranking with respect to Russia may be found at Legal 500 and Chambers and Partners Russian Internet pages.
VII. Doing Business in Russia Guides
Doing Business in Russia Guides hyperlinked below provide a quick overview of issues including but not limited to the following:
· General information about the country;
· Political system;
· Foreign investment climate;
· Forms of business organizations;
· Mergers & acquisitions;
· Regulation of securities;
· Banking;
· Antimonopoly regulations;
· Currency regulations;
· Employment;
· Real estate;
· Intellectual property;
· Privatization;
· Insolvency;
· Taxation; and
· Accounting practices.
Doing Business in Russia Guides prepared by international law firms (English access):
· Doing Business in Russia 2016, prepared by Baker & McKenzie (January 2016)
· Doing Business in Russia 2016, prepared by CMS Cameron McKenna (October 2015)
· Legal Guide to Investing in Russia, prepared by Herbert Smith Freehills (November 2015) (copy and paste the link into browser and wait for a download of the PDF)
Doing Business in Russia Guides prepared by the Big 4 firms (English access):
· Doing Business in Russia 2016, prepared by Deloitte (January 2016)
· Doing Business in the Russian Federation, prepared by the Ernst & Young (July, 2014)
· Doing Business in Russia 2015, prepared by KPMG (March 2015)
· Doing Business and Investing in the Russian Federation 2015, prepared by PricewaterhouseCoopers (2015)